movement of data over the network using routers.
Several successful implementations of TCP/IP net-
works were produced during the 1980’s. In 1983, the
government required all computers connected to
its Advanced Research Projects Agency Network
(ARPANET) to implement TCP/IP, and in 1995
Microsoft implemented TCP/IP as its default net-
working protocol. These two actions effectively
made TCP/IP the standard internetworking proto-
col after 1995.
By the late 1980’s, many computer networks were
connected by TCP/IP, and there was considerable
transfer of data among these computers. However,
the data was transferred as files, and it was not partic-
ularly attractive when it arrived at a destination com-
puter. From 1989 to 1992, Tim Berners-Lee of the
European Council for Nuclear Research (later re-
named the European Organization for Nuclear Re-
search), known as CERN, in Switzerland developed
the first version of a Web browser and server using
the hypertext markup language (HTML) and hyper-
text transfer protocol (HTTP). Using the Web to dis-
seminate information over TCP/IP internetworks
greatly increased its popularity. Many improvements
were made to Web servers and browsers over the
1990’s, and by 2000 the Internet had become one of
the major vehicles for the exchange of information.
The first real e-business was a CERN telephone di-
rectory created by Berners-Lee in 1992. During the
remainder of the 1990’s, e-commerce developed at
breakneck speed, with many large companies like
Amazon.com appearing. While there was a down-
turn for e-commerce in 2000, the industry recovered
shortly after and has since expanded rapidly.
A new version of IP, called IPv6 (version 6), was
proposed in 1991. This upgraded IP provides better
security and enhanced routing capability. Because
the current version of IP is widely used, IPv6 has
been making slow but steady progress in being de-
ployed. In 1996, the Internet2 project was an-
nounced as the next version of the Internet. A high-
speed (100 gigabytes per second) state-of-the-art
internetwork, Internet2 will support a variety of me-
dia transfers and innovative applications. It is antici-
pated that Internet2 will use IPv6.
Creation of the Internet In 1969, ARPANET was cre-
ated under the leadership of the Defense Advanced
Research Projects Agency (DARPA) of the Depart-
ment of Defense. Initially, ARPANET consisted of a
small number of government and university com-
puters connected with the network control program
(NCP) protocol. In 1983, ARPANET made TCP/IP
its core protocol. Over the next few years, TCP/IP
matured as an internetworking protocol. By 1990,
ARPANET had become difficult to operate, and it
was officially retired. ARPANET was replaced by sev-
eral internetworks (including the National Science
Foundation Network, or NSFNet) and a group of or-
ganizations (including the Internet Society, or
ISOC). By 1991, these internets and organizations
were regularly referred to as the Internet.
In 1991, NSFNet decided to allow use of its net-
work by commercial entities as well as the govern-
ment and universities. This effectively opened the
Internet to everyone and resulted in a dramatic
increase in the size of the Internet. The Internet So-
ciety was chartered in January, 1992. It is a large or-
ganization, made up of individuals, companies, uni-
versities, and organizations. ISOC determines the
policies and standards for the Internet. ISOC has
several important boards, including the Internet Ar-
chitecture Board (IAB), the Internet Engineering
Task Force (IETF), and the Internet Research Task
Force (IRTF). The IAB provides technical advice to
ISOC, the IETF works on specific standards, and the
IRTF does long-range planning. In 1995, the Federal
Networking Council (FNC), a coordinating group
of representatives from the federal agencies in-
volved in networking, officially defined the Internet
as the totality of networks that were interconnected
by TCP/IP. This is the definition of the Internet
used today.Advances in Networking During the 1990’s, there
were many advances in TCP/IP software that helped
the Internet to grow. When TCP/IP was selected as
the internet protocol of ARPANET, it included a
number of important features, including Telnet for
remote terminal access, file transfer protocol (FTP)
for remote file transfer, transmission control proto-
col (TCP) for reliable connections, IP for routing,
and simple mail transfer protocol (SMTP) for e-mail
support. In 1990, the simple network management
protocol (SNMP) made its debut by remotely oper-
ating an Internet toaster. During the 1990’s, SNMP
continued to add features and applications until a
single workstation could manage all the computers
on a network.
The most important addition to the TCP/IP pro-454 Internet The Nineties in America