and storyteller. He is credited with more than eigh-
teen books of poetry, seven anthologies, eleven
translations, and seven books of nonfiction, of which
Iron John: A Book About Menis one.
Impact Iron Johnhas become synonymous with the
men’s movement, including New Warrior Network
and Promise Keepers, although their methods and
aims may be different. The book and Bly were prom-
inent in the news in the 1990’s, reaping both praise
and criticism.
Further Reading
Bly, Robert.Iron John: A Book About Men.Reading,
Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1990.
Gilmore, David D.Manhood in the Making: Cultural
Concepts of Masculinity.New Haven, Conn.: Yale
University Press, 1990.
Keen, Sam.Fire in the Belly: On Being a Man.New
York: Bantam Books, 1992.
Erika E. Pilver
See also Culture wars; Life coaching; Marriage
and divorce;Men Are from Mars, Women Are from Ve-
nus; Million Man March; Native Americans; Promise
Keepers; Psychology; Religion and spirituality in the
United States;Saving Private Ryan.
Israel and the United States
Definition Diplomatic and strategic relations
between Israel and the United States
In the 1990’s, two U.S. administrations undertook re-
peated diplomatic efforts to shepherd peace agreements be-
tween Israel and its Arab neighbors. Despite vigorous U.S.
diplomacy and numerous formal agreements, final peace
between Israel and the Palestinian Arabs could not be at-
tained.
Though not formal allies under any treaty, tradition-
ally friendly bilateral relations between Israel and
the United States grew more intimate through intel-
ligence cooperation under U.S. president Ronald
Reagan (1981-1989). Under his successor, George
H. W. Bush (1989-1993), however, strains emerged
over the Gulf War of 1991 that raised questions con-
cerning the strategic value of U.S. ties to Israel.
Though many other nations were persuaded to join
a military coalition to assist this U.S.-led project to
expel Iraq from Kuwait, no Israeli participation was
deemed by the United States to be politically feasi-
ble. Coalition members supporting the United
States included the Arab states of Egypt and Syria,
and both were unwilling to fight on the same side as
the Jewish state, Israel. During the Gulf War, Iraq re-
peatedly struck targets in Israel with Scud missiles,
expecting that Israeli retaliation would shatter the
U.S.-led coalition. To provide Israel incentive not
to retaliate, U.S. Patriot antimissile batteries were
rushed to Israel on an emergency basis, and senior
U.S. diplomat Lawrence Eagleburger was dispatched
to Jerusalem to ensure Israeli restraint for the dura-
tion of the Gulf War.Advancing Peace with the Arab World The Bush
administration, especially Secretary of State James
Baker, approached the post-Gulf War Middle East
with the view that opportunities were ripe for new
initiatives to maximize U.S. influence. A key obstacle
was perceived to be the persistence of hostility be-
tween Israel and its Arab neighbors. In this context,
the continuing reluctance of many Arab states to co-
operate fully with U.S. initiatives led Baker to place
new pressures on Israel. Together with the Soviet
Union, a peace conference was convened at Madrid,
Spain, on October 30, 1991. President Bush opened
the conference by declaring the goal of U.S. policy
to be “a just, lasting, and comprehensive settle-
ment.” This was the first face-to-face public meeting
of Israeli officials with representatives of Jordan,
Lebanon, Syria, and the Palestinians. The confer-
ence resumed in Washington in December, 1991,
and in Moscow in January, 1992. Parallel to this high-
profile public diplomacy, U.S. officials continued se-
cret contacts with leaders of Palestinian armed
groups that had been begun in the 1980’s.
Diplomatic breakthroughs followed, with all sub-
sequent steps completed during Bill Clinton’s ad-
ministration (1993-2001). A Declaration of Princi-
ples (Oslo Accords) pointing to an ultimate peace
agreement (to be negotiated later) was signed be-
tween Israel and the leadership of the Palestine Lib-
eration Organization at the White House in Wash-
ington on September 13, 1993. On May 4, 1994,
agreements were reached founding the Palestinian
National Authority (PNA); a formal peace and dip-
lomatic relations were initiated between Israel and
Jordan on October 26, 1994. A further interim
agreement also was consented to by the PNA and Is-
rael, in Washington on September 28, 1995. TheseThe Nineties in America Israel and the United States 463