ence on voting behavior in the 2000 presidential
election.
Impact Liberalism in U.S. politics during the
1990’s was most successful in promoting stronger
environmental protection compared to the 1980’s;
racial, ethnic, and gender diversity in Clinton’s exec-
utive and judicial appointments; and the retention
of noncash medical and nutritional benefits in the
Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Rec-
onciliation Act of 1996. Nonetheless, the Republi-
cans controlled Congress during most of the 1990’s
after they negatively associated the early Clinton ad-
ministration with liberalism. Liberals failed to
achieve national health insurance and to reject or re-
vise NAFTA and other free trade agreements in or-
der to pressure U.S. trading partners to improve
their environmental, labor, and human rights poli-
cies. In the 2000 presidential campaign, some liber-
als supported the Democratic presidential candi-
dacy of Bill Bradley and later the Green Party
presidential candidacy of Ralph Nader as alterna-
tives to Vice President Al Gore’s Democratic candi-
dacy.
Further Reading
Drew, Elizabeth.Showdown: The Struggle Between the
Gingrich Congress and the Clinton White House. New
York: Simon & Schuster, 1996. An analysis of the
conflicts and compromises between Clinton and
the Republican Congress, especially on welfare
reform and budget negotiations.
Germond, Jack W., and Jules Witcover.Mad as Hell:
Revolt at the Ballot Box, 1992. New York: Warner
Books, 1993. A detailed account of the events,
candidates, and issues of the 1992 presidential
election.
Woodward, Bob.The Choice. New York: Simon &
Schuster, 1996. A study of the events, issues, and
policies during Clinton’s first term as president,
including his relationship with liberals.
Sean J. Savage
See also Abortion; Albright, Madeleine; Bush,
George H. W.; Clinton, Bill; Clinton’s impeachment;
Conservatism in U.S. politics; Crime; Don’t ask, don’t
tell; Elections in the United States, midterm; Elec-
tions in the United States, 1992; Elections in the
United States, 1996; Foreign policy of the United
States; Gingrich, Newt; Ginsburg, Ruth Bader; Gore,
Al; Gulf War; Gun control; Haiti intervention; Health
care reform; North American Free Trade Agree-
ment (NAFTA); Kosovo conflict; Lewinsky scandal;
Reno, Janet; Republican Revolution; Somalia con-
flict; Welfare reform. Life coaching
Definition A philosophy emphasizing
unconditional support that aims to motivate
individuals to achieve their life goals and life
satisfaction
Life coaching began in the early 1990’s as a way of helping
individuals maximize their life satisfaction and potential.
Life coaching began as a movement to help chief ex-
ecutive officers (CEOs), top executives, and athletes
achieve their professional goals. In the 1990’s, the
coaching principles were expanded to everyday in-
dividuals seeking advice on how to become more
successful in life. Life coaching seeks to use individu-
als’ strengths to help them achieve what they want in
life. It draws heavily from schools of psychology, ex-
ecutive coaching, career development, sports, and
behavior modification. Life coaches help their cli-
ents define and achieve their goals in the areas of ca-
reer, interpersonal relationships, fiscal manage-
ment, and internal motivation.
The practice of life coaching has been criticized
as the application of psychotherapy without ade-
quate therapeutic training. There is no official regu-
latory body for life coaching; one does not have to
have any specific educational training to use the title
of “life coach.” In the late 1990’s, the International
Coach Federation (ICF) and International Associa-
tion of Coaching (IAC) were established and started
training programs for life coaches. Life coaches state
that what they do is similar to psychotherapy, but
with important differences: They do not treat men-
tal illness, they are present-oriented rather than
past-oriented, and their interventions are not aimed
at “fixing” individuals or their problems. They see
their approach as a supportive partnership with
their clients and liken their interventions to prepar-
ing an athlete for the intensive race ahead through a
process of inquiry, personal discovery, and accep-
tance of personal responsibility. Life coaching can
be done in person or over the phone. Sessions typi-
cally last from thirty to sixty minutes and typically
start at $100 per hour.The Nineties in America Life coaching 515