nize allusions toStar Wars(1977),Ghost in the Shell
(1995), andThe Wizard of Oz(1939).
Although clearly much of the film is derivative,
the cyberpunk visual style is memorable, from the
vertically falling “rain” of data on rebel computer
screens to the extremely violent, stylized kung fu
fighting sequences enhanced with wirework and
computer-generated images. The bullet-time effect
(in which computer graphics enhance simulations
of hyperslow and hyperfast speeds) is particularly
striking, not only producing breathtaking images
but also expressing the heightened perceptions of
the main characters while in the Matrix.
Impact This film reflects many of the concerns of
the 1990’s: worries about pollution, the approach-
ing millennium, and the increasing electronifica-
tion of American lives (proliferation of cell phones
and surveillance technology, miniaturization of
electronic devices, and increased reliance on com-
puters and the Internet) that might lead to social
alienation.The Matrixbecame a modern myth as
viewers engaged with both the themes and the style.
The film’s visual style was much copied, especially
the sophisticated fight scenes and special effects.
The success ofThe Matrixprompted the comple-
tion of the trilogy (The Matrix ReloadedandThe Ma-
trix Revolutionsin 2003).The Matrixis also the base
of a large transmedia franchise that includesThe
Animatrix(2003), a video game, comics, and an on-
line game; each of these contributes information
valuable to the story as a whole.The Matrixis taught
in a variety of college courses, including courses fo-
cusing on philosophy, science fiction, media, and
psychology.
Further Reading
Irwin, William, ed.The Matrix and Philosophy: Welcome
to the Desert of the Real.Chicago: Open Court, 2002.
Kapell, Matthew, and William G. Doty, eds.Jacking in
to the Matrix Franchise: Cultural Reception and Inter-
pretation. New York: Continuum, 2004.
Kathr yn A. Walterscheid
See also CGI; Computers; Film in the United
States; Hackers; Internet; Reeves, Keanu.
Medicine
Definition Medical discoveries and advances as
well as newly recognized illnesses during the
decadeDuring the 1990’s, medicine was characterized by a mix-
ture of both medical successes and setbacks. The eradication
of poliomyelitis in the Western Hemisphere was announced
by the World Health Organization, while the introduction
of a new generation of therapeutic drugs offered additional
weapons against illness or disease. At the same time, new
outbreaks of diseases such as Ebola and hantavirus respira-
tor y infections took place.The 1990’s represented a period during which
newer technologies were introduced or underwent
increased development and application. New gener-
ations of drugs were approved, both for treatment of
infectious disease as well as for palliative measures in
dealing with chronic problems or illnesses.Palliative Treatments The use of rectal or oral ther-
mometers as currently recognized dates to the latter
half of the nineteenth century. The use of mercury
within the instrument, as well as the discomfort and
time associated with their use, was problematic. In
1990, new forms of thermometers were introduced,
with one type inserted into the ear canal, and a sec-
ond type placed on the forehead. Each produced a
relatively rapid reading, though their accuracy was
later called into question.
In 1999, new forms of painkillers were introduced.
Treatment of arthritis or other forms of inflamma-
tion or pain had previously relied on nonsteroid
drugs such as ibuprofen or aspirin. Bleeding and
possible organ damage were occasional side ef-
fects, albeit rare when these drugs were properly
used. The drug Celebrex was the first of the
cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) inhibitors to be ap-
proved, inhibiting the enzyme pathway that results
in production of inflammatory chemicals.
The use of hysterectomy as a means to treat uter-
ine problems such as bleeding or fibroids, the most
common benign tumors in the reproductive tract of
young women, remained controversial. During the
1990’s, approximately 600,000 hysterectomies were
carried out annually. In the mid-1990’s, an alterna-
tive treatment for dealing with fibroids was intro-
duced: myomectomy, a method that removes the fi-
broids while allowing the uterus to remain intact.The Nineties in America Medicine 557