at the march. An immediate impact was felt in elec-
tions, as voter registration statistics reveal that one
and a half million African American men registered
to vote in the months following the march. Although
the Million Man March is not the only impetus for
this increase in voter registration, it is viewed as be-
ing a major contributing factor.
In addition, the National Association of Black So-
cial Workers reported a surge in the adoption of
black children after the march. While not solely re-
sponsible, the Million Man March appears to have
served as inspiration for both organizations and in-
dividuals to adopt black children.
Subsequent Events The Million Man March in-
spired a tenth-anniversary commemoration called
the Millions More Movement, which was also initi-
ated by Farrakhan. A second march was held from
October 14 to 17, 2005, in Washington, D.C. This
movement has continued to address issues of impor-
tance to African American men. Among them are
many themes initiated during the Million Man
March, including unity, spiritual values, education,
economic development, political power, repara-
tions, prison issues, health, artistic and cultural de-
velopment, and peace. The group has developed
many state affiliates and maintains a national con-
tact office in Chicago.
Further Reading
Bennett, LaRon D., Sr.The Million Man March: The
Untold Stor y. Brunswick, Ga.: Bhouse, 1996. The
author’s personal narrative of the event. De-
scribes the march from the point of view of partic-
ipants.
Cottman, Michael.Million Man March.New York:
Crown, 1995. A beautifully photographed book
with text by Cottman.
Madhubuti, Haki R., and Maulana Karenga, eds.Mil-
lion Man March/Day of Absence: A Commemorative An-
thology. Chicago: Third World Press, 1996. Con-
tains speeches, commentary, photography, poetry,
illustrations, and documents related to the march.
Terry, Roderick, and Cliff Giles.One Million Strong: A
Photographic Tribute of the Million Man March and
Affirmations for the African-American Male. Edge-
wood, Md.: Duncan & Duncan, 1996. A pictorial
work that features quotations from famous Afri-
can American men and the Million Man March
pledge.
Douglas A. Phillips
See also African Americans; Angelou, Maya; Elec-
tions in the United States, midterm; Farrakhan,
Louis; Gingrich, Newt; Hip-hop and rap music;
Promise Keepers; Race relations; Religion and spiri-
tuality in the United States. Minimum wage increases
The Event U.S. federal minimum wage increases
four times during 1990’s
Following nearly a decade of no change and the continued
erosion of its real value due to inflation, the minimum wage
began to increase in the 1990’s.
The minimum wage, the lowest hourly rate that em-
ployers can legally pay employees, became law in the
United States for most workers with the passage of
the Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938. The act was the
outgrowth of the exigencies created by falling wages
during the Great Depression and of the “living wage
movement,” which argued that workers in a demo-
cratic society were not truly citizens if their work
could not provide a minimal standard of living. Op-
position to the act was strongest in the South, where
it was argued that a minimum wage would lead to
job losses. Since the act did not provide for auto-
matic increases in the minimum wage, similar de-
bates emerge each time the issue is raised.
With no increase since 1981, by 1989 the real
value of the U.S. federal minimum wage was at its
lowest level since 1950. Soon after becoming presi-
dent in 1989, George H. W. Bush expressed a willing-
ness to increase the minimum wage to $4.25 per
hour if the bill included the provision for a training
wage of 85 percent of the minimum for six months
for new hires. After vetoing a bill put forward by U.S.
House and Senate Democrats raising the minimum
to $4.55, President Bush approved an increase in the
minimum wage from the existing $3.35 to $4.25 in
two stages. The first increase occurred April 1, 1990,
to $3.80. The second increase occurred on April 1,
1991, to $4.25. The legislation also included the pro-
vision for a training wage for new hires under age
twenty for their first ninety days of employment. De-
spite this 27 percent increase, the real value of the
minimum wage remained relatively low compared
to the previous thirty-five years.
By 1995, the real value of the minimum wage had
sunk nearly to the level it had been in 1989, before the576 Minimum wage increases The Nineties in America