N
Nanotechnology
Definition Fabrication of functional systems at the
molecular level between 1 and 100 nanometers
(one billionth of a meter)
During the 1990’s, nanotechnology posed the possibility of
improving human life with better materials and tools to pro-
vide breakthroughs in medicine, artificial intelligence, and
the conquest of space.
The first book about nanotechnology,Engines of Cre-
ation, was published by Eric Drexler in 1986. In 1991,
International Business Machines (IBM) endorsed
the use of nanotechnology to produce electronic
and mechanical devices atom by atom. Later that
year, carbon nanotubes were discovered. Possessing
remarkable tensile strength and varying electrical
properties, they proved useful as molecular compo-
nents.
Drexler published the first nanotechnology text-
book,Nanosystems, in 1992. In it, he outlined how to
design, analyze, and manufacture high-performance
machines from the molecular lattice of carbon. That
same year, Drexler testified before a U.S. Senate
committee about the implications, applications, and
major scientific benefits of nanotechnology. He
pointed out that products of unprecedented quality
and performance could be constructed by precisely
guiding the assembly of molecules.
In 1993, the first Feynman Prize in Nanotechnol-
ogy was awarded to Charles Musgrave for modeling a
hydrogen abstraction tool useful in nanotechnol-
ogy. The first industrial analysis of military applica-
tions of nanotechnology was released by Hughes
Aircraft Company in 1995. In 1996, the National
Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) be-
gan work in computational nanotechnology. NASA
researchers proposed the use of a single carbon na-
notube as the tip of an atomic force microscope
(AFM).
The first nanotech company, Zyvex, was founded
in 1997 in Richardson, Texas. Zyvex proposed using
nanotubes for scanning force microscope (SFM)
probes and pursued the production of nanorobots
that could break the chemical bonds of cheap ingre-
dients and reassemble them into sophisticated, use-
ful products. Federal funding of nanotechnology re-
search began in earnest in the late 1990’s. In 1998,
researchers at New York University published a pa-
per showing a molecular mechanical system that was
constructed from branched DNA molecules. Other
research focused on nanotechnology design that
mimics the process of biological evolution at the mo-
lecular scale. The first safety guidelines addressing
the potential positive and negative consequences of
nanotechnology were released by the Foresight In-
stitute in 1999.
Impact Nanotechnology research is focused on de-
veloping programmable, molecular-scaled systems
that can precisely and inexpensively produce nano-
structured materials and devices that are permitted
by the laws of physics. This approach has led to the
manufacture of polymers based on molecular struc-
ture and the design of computer chip layouts based
on surface science. Commercial applications of
nanotechnology have taken advantage of colloidal
nanoparticles in bulk form to produce protective
coatings, antireflective and antifogging glass, stain-
resistant and water-repellent clothing, and some
lines of sunscreens, cosmetics, and paints. Nano-
tubes, quantum dots, and other nanomaterials show
promise for providing universal clean water sup-
plies, molecular-engineered food, cheap and power-
ful energy generation, drastically improved formula-
tion of drugs and organ replacements, greater
information storage and communication capacities,
and long-term life preservation.
Further Reading
Drexler, Eric.Engines of Creation. New York: Anchor
Books, 1986.
King, Vernon B.Nanotechnology Research Advances.
New York: Nova Science, 2007.
Wiesner, Mark R., and Jean-Yves Bottero.Environ-