economics. Ronald H. Coase won in 1991 for work
on transaction costs and property rights for the insti-
tutional structure and functioning of the economy.
Gary S. Becker extended microeconomic analysis to
a wide variety of human behavior. Robert W. Fogel
and Douglass C. North shared a prize in 1993 for ap-
plying economic theory and quantitative methods
to explain changes in the economy and institutions.
John C. Harsanyi and John F. Nash, Jr., shared a prize
for analysis of noncooperative games. Robert E.
Lucas, Jr., was honored for transforming macroeco-
nomic analysis by developing the hypothesis of ratio-
nal expectations. William Vickrey shared a prize for
contributions to an economic theory of incentives
under asymmetric information. Robert C. Merton
and Myron S. Scholes were honored for a new
method for determining the value of derivatives.
Amartya Sen was the winner of the 1998 prize for
contributions to welfare economics. Robert A.
Mundell won in 1999 for analysis of monetary and
fiscal policy under differing exchange-rate regimes.
Impact During the 1990’s, North Americans were
particularly prominent in the Nobel Prizes in Eco-
nomic Sciences, Physiology or Medicine, Physics,
and Chemistry, and sparsely in Literature and Peace.
The only two female winners were in the latter areas.
Particularly significant work included the poly-
merase chain reaction of Mullis, which is important
in DNA testing; Molina and Rowland’s studies that
revealed the pollutants that threaten the ozone layer
and that led to a worldwide ban on chlorofluoro-
carbons; and the discovery of fullerenes by Smalley
and Curl, which contributed to the important field
of nanotechnology.
Further Reading
Feldman, Burton.The Nobel Prize: A Histor y of Genius,
Controversy, and Prestige. New York: Arcade, 2000.
Prizewinners are classified in various ways, and
stories are told of unexpected controversies.
Morrison, Toni.Beloved. New York: Alfred A. Knopf,
- The novel that won the author a Pulitzer
Prize concerns the emergence of a woman from
the evils of slavery.
Roberts, Shawn, and Jody Williams.After the Guns Fall
Silent: The Enduring Legacy of Landmines.Washing-
ton, D.C.: Vietnam Veterans of America Founda-
tion, 1995. An account of the land mines remain-
ing around the world and the danger they pose
for children and others.
Zewail, Ahmed.Voyage Through Time: Walks of Life to
the Nobel Prize. Cairo: American University of
Cairo, 2002. Personal reminiscences of the 1999
prizewinner in chemistry.
John R. PhillipsSee also Air pollution; African Americans; Asian
Americans; Astronomy; Genetics research; Inventions;
Jewish Americans; Literature in Canada; Literature in
the United States; Medicine; Morrison, Toni; Nano-
technology; Poetry; Science and technology.Noriega capture and trial
The Event U.S. forces arrest Panama’s military
dictator, General Manuel Noriega, who is
subsequently tried for drug trafficking and
money laundering
Date 1990-1992
Place Panama and Miami, FloridaThe surrender and capture of Noriega brought an end to his
de facto regime that had ruled for nearly six years. The re-
moval of Noriega from power put a stop to the human rights
abuses that were associated with his ruling, allowed a new
Panamanian government to take over, and greatly helped
the U.S. “war on drugs” in the region.Manuel Antonio Noriega was a soldier for most of
his life; he trained on U.S. military bases and slowly
rose among the ranks of his own government in Pan-
ama. Noriega became a close informant for the U.S.
Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), and the death of
Panamanian leader Omar Torrijos helped to launch
his career as the next Panamanian leader.
Noriega was not elected to his position but rather
became the de facto leader by succeeding a man who
removed himself from the presidential race. Nori-
ega promoted himself to the position of general and
took power in 1983. He continued his good relations
with the United States by giving the United States
more access to the Panama Canal and by helping
U.S. interests in the region. Noriega allowed presi-
dential elections in the following year, but when it
appeared that he might lose, he halted the elections
to ensure he stayed in power.
It was about this time, when Noriega assumed his
role as a dictator, that he was first accused of being
involved in drug trafficking. In addition, the general616 Noriega capture and trial The Nineties in America