for being antitechnological and unsustainable.
Some studies have shown organic farming to result
in lower yield and higher impact than conventional
farming; others have shown comparable or higher
yields for organic techniques in certain parts of the
world. Critics argue that conventional techniques
produce more food per acre and have lower impact
because they preserve more nonagricultural land;
proponents of organic agriculture claim that small
farms are more efficient overall, although they do
not produce large volumes of single crops the way
monoculture farms do.
Critics have also claimed that organic food is too
expensive for low-income families and poorer coun-
tries and thus a luxury available only to the elite.
Others contend that the cost of synthetic fertilizers
and pesticides is prohibitively expensive to poorer
countries and that application of organic farming
methods would improve crop yield. The many vari-
ables involved in measuring agricultural yield make
it difficult to determine definitively the effectiveness
of organic farming as compared to conventional
methods.
Impact The organic food movement of the 1990’s
changed how many Americans viewed food and
widely affected agricultural and marketing prac-
tices. The enormous success of organic food chains
like Whole Foods Market and Wild Oats Markets
proved that organic food could be profitable to re-
tailers and producers as well as appealing to the gen-
eral public.
The impact of the growth in the organic food in-
dustry reverberated throughout the decade and
continued to arouse public debate in the twenty-first
century. The increased popularity of organic agri-
culture brought up many issues, such as the relative
impacts of different agricultural methods on the en-
vironment; food safety and public health; whether
industrial organic agriculture is in keeping with the
ideals of the organic food movement; and socioeco-
nomic topics.
Further Reading
DeGregori, Thomas R.Origins of the Organic Agricul-
ture Debate. Ames, Iowa: Blackwell, 2004. DeGre-
gori discusses two historically contrasting views,
the technological view that led to modern agricul-
ture and the “vitalist” view that supports or-
ganic agriculture. The author is a proponent of
responsible use of technology and argues that re-
sources are not finite but rather created by tech-
nology.
Fromartz, Samuel.Organic Inc.: Natural Foods and
How They Grew. Orlando, Fla.: Harcourt, 2006. Ad-
dresses the history of the organic movement and
its connections to industry, assessing the compro-
mises the movement has made to reach main-
stream consumers.
Groh, Trauger, and Steven McFadden. Farms of
Tomorrow Revisited: Community Supported Farms,
Farm Supported Communities. Junction City, Oreg.:
BioDynamic Farming and Gardening Association,- Provides an introduction to, history of, and
argument for community-supported agriculture.
Kristiansen, Paul, Acram Taji, and John Reganold.
Organic Agriculture: A Global Perspective. Ithaca,
N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 2006. The authors
critically examine the successes and limitations of
the organic agriculture movement worldwide, in-
cluding in the United States.
Lipson, Elaine Marie.The Organic Foods Sourcebook.
Chicago: Contemporary Books, 2001. Covers the
history of the organic food movement, profiles
influential people and companies, and provides a
list of resources.
Norberg-Hodge, Helena, Todd Merrifield, and Ste-
ven Gorelick.Bringing the Food Economy Home: Lo-
cal Alternatives to Global Agribusiness. London:
Zed Books, 2002. Examines global food issues
from multiple angles in an argument for local
food.
Melissa A. Barton
See also Agriculture in Canada; Agriculture in the
United States; Earth Day 1990; Food trends; Ge-
netically modified foods; Global warming debate;
Kyoto Protocol; Science and technology. Outsourcing
Definition The business practice of
subcontracting labor to external sources for
greater efficiency or cost savingDuring the 1990’s, outsourcing rapidly expanded beyond
manufacturing and clerical functions to include business
and knowledge processes, resulting in the offshoring of
white-collar jobs. This trend not only helped American and654 Outsourcing The Nineties in America