Archaeology
Definition Systematic recovery and analysis of
ancient and historic human cultural artifacts
During the 1990’s, archaeology entered a new era of profes-
sionalism, technological advances, and cultural and ethi-
cal awareness.
The 1990’s brought new technologies that enabled
archaeologists to test old theories and to propose
new ones, opening the way for a more complete un-
derstanding of the past. New scientific develop-
ments permitted archaeologists greater access to in-
formation while at the same time providing greater
protection for the objects and sites under study.
Major Discoveries Archaeologists used DNA analy-
sis to track early human migrations into the Ameri-
cas, moving back the arrival date of the first humans
to well before the previously established date of
12500 b.p.(before present). This discovery led to
discussions about possible multiple migratory waves
of genetically different groups of humans, a theory
now supported by DNA analysis of modern Native
American populations.
In 1996, archaeologists identified one of the old-
est skeletons ever found in North America. Named
for the location in Washington State where he was
found, the “Kennewick Man” was dated to 8400b.p.
Local Native American tribes filed for possession of
the skeleton under the 1990 Native American
Graves Protection and Repatriation Act (NAGPRA),
but scientists objected, stating that genetic analysis
was necessary to determine if the remains were actu-
ally Native American. Custody of the remains was
still contested as of late 1999.
At the Watson Brake in Louisiana, archaeologists
discovered a 916-foot-long oval ridge connecting
eleven earthen mounds that were originally up to 26
feet high. Archaeologists dated the site to 5400b.p.,
the hunter-gatherer period prior to the develop-
ment of agriculture in the area. This discovery con-
tradicted the theory that only settled agricultural so-
cieties constructed large-scale building projects.
In anticipation of the quadricentennial anniver-
sary of the founding of Jamestown, the Jamestown
Archaeological Assessment located fifty-eight sites
that represented 10,500 years of human habitation.
Using ground-penetrating radar, archaeologists
were able to locate objects and remains beneath the
earth’s surface. Among the discoveries was the first
James Fort, constructed in 1607. Within the fort, ar-
chaeologists found more than ninety thousand arti-
facts and the skeleton of a woman identified as Mis-
tress Forrest who came to Jamestown in 1608.
Excavations at Monticello, Thomas Jefferson’s
Virginia estate, focused on the home of Elizabeth
Hemings, matriarch of the slave family who worked
for Jefferson. Using a digital elevation model, ar-
chaeologists located the foundations of the
Hemings’s house and a nearby artifact midden (rub-
bish dump) that revealed details about Hemings’
household goods and daily life. In 1999, DNA tests
confirmed that Sally Hemings, Elizabeth’s youngest
daughter, gave birth to at least one child (Eston
Hemings) who was fathered by Jefferson, thereby
opening the way for Hemings’s descendants to be
buried in the Jefferson historic plot.
Archaeology and the Internet The 1990’s saw a
burgeoning of archaeology-related Internet sites.
Among the most useful and dependable of these
sites were Links to the Past from the National Park
Service, Southeast Archaeological Center, James-
town Recovery Project, Institute of Nautical Archae-
ology, the Center for American Archaeology, and
ArchNet: the World Wide Web Virtual Library for
Archaeology. In addition to archaeological associa-
tions and organizations hosting Web sites, many uni-
versity archaeology departments created their own
Internet sites, identified by “.edu” following their
Web address. Archaeological discoveries, practices,
and controversies thereby became accessible to the
general public.
Archaeology and the Law The 1990’s saw active
federal, state, and local regulations put in place to
protect the nation’s archaeological heritage. The
Curation of Federally-Owned and Administered Ar-
chaeological Collections established regulations
and guidelines for federal agencies to manage and
preserve archaeological remains. NAGPRA estab-
lished protection for Native American, Hawaiian,
and Alaskan sites and artifacts. The National Park
Service’s Abandoned Shipwreck Act extended the
government’s control beyond land sites. The Pass-
port in Time project invited volunteers to assist pro-
fessionals in the excavation and study of sites and
artifacts. The National Park Service’s Vanishing
Treasures movement was organized to protect en-
dangered sites, and the Mandatory Center of Exper-The Nineties in America Archaeology 45