dals during Clinton’s two terms with glee. Conserva-
tive U.S. Supreme Court justice Clarence Thomas
officiated at Limbaugh’s third wedding. Freshman
Republicans who were part of the party’s new con-
gressional majority in 1994 named Limbaugh an
honorary member of Congress for his support. The
National Association of Broadcasters recognized
him four times (in 1992, 1995, 2000, and 2005) as
Syndicated Radio Personality of the Year.
Many other conservative personalities followed,
from political strategist and consultant Mary Mata-
lin, who hosted her own talk radio show in the
1990’s, to Sean Hannity, a Fox News Network conser-
vative commentator. The almost-solid conservative
formats prompted critics to advocate a new Fairness
Doctrine. The previous one, a Federal Communica-
tions Commission (FCC) regulation requiring broad-
cast license holders to seek balance in presenting
issues, was repealed in 1987 during Ronald Reagan’s
administration. Its removal paved the way for the
spread of conservative talk radio in the 1990’s.
The popularity of talk radio in the United States
did not catch on in neighboring Canada. Most Cana-
dian shows are broadcast on privately owned stations
and deal with local matters. One exception isAdler
on Line, hosted by Charles Adler.
Impact Some predictions for the future of talk ra-
dio see it expanding into new outlets, such as the In-
ternet and other competing technologies. Many In-
ternet blogs (Web logs) already imitate the “listener
comment” part of talk radio by soliciting responses,
and talk radio host Howard Stern moved to a satel-
lite radio service in 2004. Democrats in the House of
Representatives made two unsuccessful attempts in
2005 to bring back the Fairness Doctrine to bring
more diversity to talk radio. The response of conser-
vative talk radio hosts is generally that they are enter-
tainers, not political commentators, and that the is-
sue is one of free speech.
Further Reading
Buxton, Frank, and Bill Owen.The Big Broadcast.
New York: Viking Press, 1972. A survey of talk ra-
dio’s predecessors in various kinds of shows from
the 1920’s to the 1950’s.
Franken, Al.Lies and the Lying Liars Who Tell Them: A
Fair and Balanced Look at the Right. New York: Pen-
guin Group, 2003. A professional comic lam-
poons conservative talk radio icons and gives ac-
counts of what he sees as their shortcomings.
Gallerani, Donald.Ever ything Worth Knowing I Heard
on Talk Radio. Charleston, S.C.: BookSurge, 2007.
A representative of talk radio’s audience gives his
views on those in the industry with whom he has
talked on the air as a caller, and what he sees as the
influences of each talk radio host on the events of
the day.
Hannity, Sean.Deliver Us from Evil: Defeating Terrorism,
Despotism, and Liberalism. New York: William Mor-
row, 2004. Well-known radio talk show conserva-
tive, who also is part of the Fox network’sHannity
and Colmestelevision program, explains his beliefs.
Kurtz, Howard.Media Circus: The Trouble with Amer-
ica’s Newspapers. New York: Times Books, 1993.
Kurtz, aWashington Postpress critic, delves into
not only newspapers but also the role that talk ra-
dio plays in disseminating news and information
to the public.
Laufer, Peter.Inside Talk Radio: America’s Voice or Just
Hot Air?New York: Carol, 1995. Laufer, who has
participated in radio talk shows and knows or is fa-
miliar with talk-show hosts across the nation, pro-
vides insights on how they work, the pros and cons
of this radio phenomenon, and chapters on key
players such as Rush Limbaugh, Howard Stern,
and Larry King.
Limbaugh, Rush.The Way Things Ought to Be. New
York: Pocket Books, 1993. An anecdotal account
of the influences that shaped the conservative
views of the best-known talk show commentator.
Limbaugh also outlines his core views.
Munson, Wayne.All Talk: The Talkshow in Media Cul-
ture. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1994.
Insights on talk shows combining news and com-
edy by a Massachusetts college communications
and media teacher, and how the format entices
listeners with a combination of the familiar and
the unpredictable. Also provides information on
the format’s antecedents dating back to eigh-
teenth century magazines.
Paul DellingerSee also Bush, George H. W.; Clinton, Bill; Clin-
ton’s impeachment; Clinton’s scandals; Conserva-
tism in U.S. politics; Contract with America; Drudge,
Matt; Lewinsky scandal; Liberalism in U.S. politics;
Limbaugh, Rush; Morris, Dick; O’Reilly, Bill; Repub-
lican Revolution; Right-wing conspiracy.The Nineties in America Talk radio 833