The Pechenegs In Khazar History 137
The Eastern accounts on the Inner Bulgars date from the same period. This
concept appears for the first time in Al-Balkhi’s work, Figures of the Climates
(circa 920–921). Al-Istakhri also mentions it in his Book of Roads and Kingdoms,
written sometime around 930–933 and later revised in 951, as a supplement to
the work of Al-Balkhi.51 In both books the information regarding the “Inner”
Bulgars is identical. A significant and relevant piece of information was later
added by Ibn Hawqal who, on request from Al-Istakhri, continued the Book
of Roads and Kingdoms, the last revision of which dates from 977. In 969 Ibn
Hawqal visited the southern coast of the Caspian Sea where he learned from
Khazar refugees of the fall of the Khazar Khaganate, as well as of the Inner
Bulgars.52 These Bulgars are also mentioned in Hudud al-ʿAlam (982–983).53
Though not quite clear, it is highly probable that the “Inner” and “Black”
Bulgars constituted the same community.54 The works of Al-Balkhi and
Al-Istakhri do not allow the conclusion to be made that the Inner Bulgars were
part of the Khazar Khaganate. Ibn Hawqal, however, directly associates their
defeat, caused by the Rus’, with that of Khazaria. It is quite certain that they
were part of the khaganate at least until the 960s. In this context, of signifi-
cance is the view of S. Pletneva, who assumes that “the subjection to the khagan
and the probable service in his army and in other “administrative institutions”
of the Bulgars that inhabited the lands between Bosporus and Chersonesus
allowed Constantine Porphyrogenitus to call them “Black Bulgars”, thus dis-
tinguishing them from the free Bulgars from the Danube and Volga regions”.55
51 Novosel’tsev 1965, 408.
52 Novosel’tsev 1965, 409.
53 Minorsky 1937, 45. The work also interestingly states that the Inner Bulgars were at war
with all the Rus’.
54 See Merpert 1957, 25–29; Bozhilov 1979, 163–167; Dimitrov 1989, 14–15; Bozhilov and
Dimitrov 1995, 47–51; Gening and Khalikov 1964, 124–126. The issue of Black Bulgaria is
examined in detail by Romashov 2004, 248–256, complete with different viewpoints and
relevant literature.
55 Pletneva 1999, 169. The definition “Black” has different meanings in the steppe world. In
Turkic tradition the term kara-budun (black people) refers to the main part of the popu-
lation of the land, while “White” has the meaning of “free” and can be associated with
the nobility. (Gumilev 2004a, 68; Golden 1980, 142). Of particular interest is the account
of Al-Istakhri about the division of the Khazars into black and white. While the Eastern
scholar believes this division to include separate racial groups, it is more likely that the
definition “White Khazars” referred to the uppermost class in the khaganate (the nobility)
and “Black Khazars”—to the population that was subordinate to it or ruled by it (Dunlop
1967, 96 and 224; Artamonov 1962, 400). It is also possible that “black” meant “northern”.
For the symbolism of white and black in the steppe world, see also Stepanov 2005a, 117–
118; Golden 2003, no. 8, 105–107.