Khazaria And International Trade In Eastern Europe 151
Between the eighth and the tenth centuries, silver coins were a truly impor-
tant commodity for the Scandinavians. Until the middle of the tenth century,
neither Eastern Europe nor Scandinavia had any other sources of silver or an
alternative import to the dirhams. Silver coins were easy to carry and were used
both as a means for commerce, a sign of prestige and for the production of
various silver ornaments. During this period, gold rarely appeared in interna-
tional trade, probably because it was much rarer—and much more expensive.11
Byzantium is, of course, an exception here, since it never ceased to mint gold
coins and, like Danube Bulgaria, did not partake in the trade with silver coins.
The flow of dirhams towards Eastern Europe was not constant. During
different periods, the fluctuations in their amounts reflect the changes and
problems that occurred in the Eastern trade. Two major crises in the influx of
dirhams are known—from the last quarter of the ninth century and from the
second half of the tenth century. It is important to understand not only what
caused them, but also how they influenced the development of the Khazar
state.
Noting the paucity of hoards, containing dirhams, between 870 and 900,
T. Noonan seeks the cause in the Eastern European trade, since coin minting
in the Arab Caliphate did not appear to have stopped at that time. During the
second half of the ninth century, several Christian and Muslim states south
of the Caucasus broke away from the direct authority of the Abbasids. At the
same time, the Alid movement in Tabaristan hindered trade relations in the
Caspian Sea. Overall, this period was rather unstable for the Caliphate, includ-
ing a large-scale fragmentation of its subordinate territories. A further obstacle
may have been the transition of the control over the Northern Black Sea steppe
to the Pechenegs. The roads across the steppe up to the Crimea and the con-
nection between the Don and the Volga were of significant importance for the
Rus’-Khazar-Islamic trade. Thus, as a result of the Pecheneg invasion, the Rus’
merchants’ access to the lower reaches of the Volga was limited and perhaps
even cut off. The emergence of Samanid dirhams in the early tenth century
indicates the use of a new road that connected Middle Asia with Itil and Volga
Bulgaria and went around the already dangerous region of the Sea of Azov.12
V. Petrukhin’s interpretation of T. Noonan’s insights leads him to a different
conclusion. In his view, the trade crisis was caused by the settlement of Prince
Oleg in Kiev (882), who released the Slavic tribes Radimichi and Severians from
11 Noonan 1994, 216. During the eighth century, the minting of gold coins in Western Europe
ceased completely. The coin hoards dated after 710 contain only silver denarii. The mint-
ing of gold coins was revived only in the thirteenth century (Favier 2002, 100–102).
12 Noonan 1985, 198–202.