164 CHAPTER 3
If the aggravation of the relations between the Rus’ and the Khazars was
caused by the reduced inflow of dirhams to Kiev, this shows that the Khazar
Khaganate was able to control the trade also along the route that connected
Kiev with Volga Bulgaria through the Oka. A. Vinnikov assumes an increase
in the commercial importance of the region around the Upper Don towards
the Oka (the land of the Viatichi), through which the main part of the dirham
inflow passed in the early tenth century.64 Thus, the areas around the upper
reaches of the Don and the Severski Donets, which were undeniably under
Khazar control during the tenth century, could probably have affected the
trade flow along the Oka. In general, it could be argued that the territory south
of the Oka was subject to the Khazar Khaganate until the 960s. The direct com-
mercial interests of the Volga Bulgars were also targeted along the Oka. Not
incidentally, it is presumed that they had their own trading post in Murom
itself.65
The connection to Kiev is important, because the land route from Western
Europe towards the East passed through it. It was an extension of the route from
Spain and France that passed through Regensburg, Prague, Krakow, Peremyshl
and Kiev and led towards Sarkel and the Khazar capital Itil. In the late eighth
century or the early ninth, its development was linked to the Radhanites, the
Jewish merchants that served the land trade between Europe and the East.66
The Raffelstetten Customs Regulations, written up between 903 and 906, show
that the Rus’ used this road during the ninth century.67 According to some
scholars, its importance increased in the tenth century when Jewish commu-
nities were established in many cities of Western Europe like Mainz, Augsburg,
Regensburg and Prague. There is evidence that during the first half of the
in the economic development of Kievan Rus’, which by then was already completely
directed towards Byzantium (Shepard and Franklin 2000, 209).
64 Vinnikov 1995, 69.
65 Dubov 1989, 140–143. The trade route that connected Bolgar and Kiev was probably also
known to the Arab merchants already in the first half of the tenth century (according to
the account of Al-Istakhri). It was used most intensively from the beginning of the elev-
enth century to the middle of the twelfth century. (Konovalova 2000, 132). A. Tortika also
believes that this road was used during the first half or the middle of the tenth century.
The scholar assumes as well that it was used both for trade with Bolgar and directly with
Itil (Tortika 2006b, 32 and 2006a, 460–461). See also Belorybkin 1986.
66 Gumilev 1997, 153; Pashuto 1968, 138; Simeonova 2006, 23–25.
67 Nazarenko 1994, 25–26 and 2001, 80–82. The idea behind the Regulations was to ratify the
rules that existed during the time of Louis the German (840–876) and Carloman (876–
880) (Shepard and Franklin 2000, 135; Nazarenko 2001, 108).