168 CHAPTER 3
inherited many structures, as well as the conduct of most nomadic groups
from previous centuries; however, in the ninth and tenth centuries it could not
be defined as a typical nomadic state.
Khazaria housed several trade centers that were large for their time and
attracted diverse peoples. In some places, like for example in Itil, merchants
and Muslim tradesmen (an interesting fact is that sources on Itil do not men-
tion Jewish traders) lived in a segregated quarter. But to what extent was trade
decisive for the economy of the Khazar Khaganate? In the tenth century, the
importance of the land caravan route that led from Western Europe across the
Northern Black Sea coast and the Caucasus towards Middle Asia and China
waned. At the same time, Khazaria did not seem to experience any significant
economic downturn. Archaeological research has yet to bring more clarity on
this issue.
According to D. Dunlop, “the prosperity of Khazaria evidently depended less
on the resources of the country than on its favorable position across important
trade-routes”.86 Interpreting the accounts of Al-Istakhri and Al-Masudi, as well
as the letter of the Khazar ruler Joseph, the scholar reaches the conclusion that
in the mid-tenth century the country prospered.87 Does this mean that it also
retained its control over the important trade routes?
P. Golden also sees Khazaria as a commercial state. In his opinion, its econ-
omy was based on revenues from customs duties. They depended on the ability
of the khaganate to control trade routes. For this purpose, during the ninth and
tenth centuries the Khazar rulers kept a hired army with money from the trade
income. Since the subordinate territories gradually decreased, so did the rev-
enues from customs duties, until it became difficult to maintain a hired army.
Thus the structure which supported the Khazar state collapsed in the second
half of the tenth century.88
We cannot be certain that the changes in international trade during the
tenth century led to the weakening of Khazaria. There is no doubt that during
the tenth century, the Khaganate lost the Dnieper River Valley, along with a
large part of the Black Sea steppe. However, the connection to Western Europe,
which passed through Kiev, was not particularly active during the ninth
century. Even assuming that the Pechenegs disturbed trade relations and
caused a northward shift in the route, the Khazar authority over the Viatichi
(i.e. over a large part of the road along the Oka) and some of the Ugrian tribes
in this region cannot be denied. It is also highly unlikely that the Volga Bulgars
86 Dunlop 1967, 232.
87 Dunlop 1967, 241.
88 Golden 1980, 111.