180 CHAPTER 4
T. Noonan also rejects the evolutionary approach regarding the develop-
ment of the nomadic economy. He also doubts the theory, maintained by
A. Khazanov, that the nomadic economy was strongly dependent on agricul-
tural societies. In this connection he quotes Nicola Di Cosmo,45 according to
whom the nomads were less dependent on sedentary societies. They practiced
various forms of agriculture themselves or included farmers in their states.46
T. Noonan also draws special attention to the theory of Gy. Györffy,47 who,
after studying the Magyars of Hungary, created a model of nomadic lifestyle,
typical for Eastern Europe. He defined the economy of the Magyars as semi-
nomadic. In winter, they settled along the major rivers and engaged in fishing. In
spring, wheat was sown in suitable locations, after which the Magyars moved
on towards summer pastures together with their cattle. At harvest-time they
gathered the crops and returned to their winter settlements along the rivers.
T. Noonan is, however, unsure as to whether the Magyar model can be used
in the study of the nomadic economy in the Northern Black Sea steppes. In
other words, it is unclear whether this model was transferred from there by the
Magyars or was adopted by them after their settlement in the new territories.48
Theoretical models for the nomadic economy are not sufficient to clarify
the Khazar economy, nor do they help in understanding the reasons behind
the development or the decline of Khazaria. Each steppe empire combined an
agricultural, stock-breeding and handicraft sector in its economy. They existed
simultaneously in numerous varieties, due not only to the vast ethnic diversity
of the population, but also to differences in the geographical environment, the
climate, etc. To understand the Khazar economy, a differentiation of various
economic zones should be made, as well as an attempt to find links between
them.
the third type the nomads conquer the agricutural society and settle on its territory. A reg-
ulated taxation of the farmers and citizens then takes place. This type of nomadic empire
is not so much “nomadic” as “sedentary-agricutural”, with the nomadic stock-breeders
being predominant in the political sphere and in military structures.
45 Di Cosmo 1994.
46 Noonan 1995–1997, 253–255.
47 Gyorffy 1975.
48 Noonan 1995–1997, 254 and 258. According to Golden 1982, 63, this form of nomadic pas-
toralism is typical for the nobility of the East European/West Eurasian nomads and is
reflected in the letter of the Khazar ruler Joseph; see also Mikheev 2004, 89–90.