Introduction 3
ible division between the Judaized Khazar nobility and the vast majority of
the khaganate’s highly diverse population, kept in subjection only by the army
that was employed by the ruling strata. Khazaria’s defeat in the wars and the
devastating consequences of the Pecheneg invasion (between the late ninth
and the early tenth centuries) that caused the depopulation of the majority of
the khaganate’s agricultural areas, as well as a gradual dying out of the Saltovo
archaeological culture (the culture of the Khazar state) are all seen the result
of this division (which also led to a civil war).11 S. Pletneva confirms the obser-
vation of M. Artamonov, arguing that “by the middle of the tenth century, the
Khazar Khaganate was a noteworthy political entity only in the mind of the
khagan. In his letter, Joseph was describing the former borders and past great-
ness of his state”.
As can be expected, L. Gumilev’s opinion stands apart from the rest. Already
in 1966 he draws attention to the climate changes in the tenth century, which,
according to him, had a big impact on Khazaria. Following changes in the path-
way of the Atlantic cyclones, the steppe zone of Eurasia began to dry out due to
lack of rainfall. The economy of the nomads thus started to wane, along with
their power. The climate triggered migratory movements from east to west
towards the more fertile steppes of the Northern Black Sea region, and the first
of these was the Pecheneg one. They were so weakened that they could not
cause significant damage along their way. On the other hand, since they moved
in numerous small units and could not be stopped, they blocked Khazaria,
becoming masters of the steppe. The rainfall shifted northwards, to the forest
zone, raising the water levels of the rivers and especially the Volga. As a result,
the Caspian Sea level began to rise, flooding the main agricultural lands of the
Khazars and thus weakening their economy.
According to L. Gumilev, the Khazar khagan’s conversion to Judaism was
also crucial for the division of the Khazar society, which went through a long
and exhausting civil war. The interests of the Khazar population and those of
the ruling nobility were so conflicting that it was impossible for them to unite
11 Pletneva 1976, 63–65. It should be borne in mind that in her later works S. Pletneva does
not speak so strongly of the Pecheneg invasion consequences. The devastation of the
Saltovo monuments is presented as a long process and not a one-time consequence of
the Pechenegs’ arrival in the Northern Black Sea region. This will be discussed in further
detail below, during the analysis of the Pechenegs’ place in Eastern Europe during the
tenth century (see chapter 2).
12 Pletneva 1976, 68.
13 Gumilev 2003, 114.