206 CHAPTER 4
mouth of the Volga was also dry and barren. Not incidentally, both the Eastern
writers and the Khazar ruler Joseph note that the fields and vineyards of the
Itil citizens were situated far from the city.150 The sources are most probably
correct. In their descriptions of Samadar, the same writers talk about vineyards
and gardens that were located nearby.151 This information also corresponds
to the archaeological data on the areas surrounding the large settlements in
Dagestan.152 When Al-Istakhri states that the Khazar land (as interpreted by
D. Dunlop and P. Golden; according to B. Zakhoder’s—the Khazars) did not
produce anything that could be exported to other lands (again according to
D. Dunlop and P. Golden; according to B. Zakhoder—neither produced nor
exported anything), except isinglass,153 he obviously means the surroundings
of Itil.
Al-Istakhri’s text on Eastern Europe describes various regions and peoples,
along with the goods they produced, from the viewpoint of Muslim trade.
The main goods in Itil that were of interest for the Eastern merchants were
imported and were not processed in the city. However, they most often came
from regions that were subjugated to Khazaria! Al-Istakhri’s account therefore
cannot be used as proof of Khazaria’s lack of a well-developed production and
does not contradict the established view of Itil’s surroundings, which is based
on both written and archaeological evidence.
Agriculture was the basis of the Khazar economy in the Crimea, where the
level of sedentariness was higher in comparison to the Don Region. Agriculture,
along with stock-breeding, provided a surplus that was intended for the market.
Pottery-making and metalworking were the most well-developed handicrafts.
The Saltovo craftsmen were in demand not only in the Crimea, but also in
Sarkel and the Don Region.154 Various goods were sent northwards, towards
the northern bank of the Terek and along the Caspian coast between the mouths of the
Terek and the Sulak [.. .] the foothill and steppe regions of Dagestan were not inhabited
by Khazars” (Gumilev 1997, 65).
150 Artamonov 1962, 397; Noonan 1995–1997, 257–259; Dunlop 1967, 224–225; Golden 1980,
102–104; Novosel’tsev 1990, 113.
151 Artamonov 1962, 398; Noonan 1995–1997, 257; Dunlop 1967, 227–228; Golden 1980, 103.
Recent archaeological excavations in the Astrakhan’ area allow for the assumption that a
large Saltovo craft center from the period between the ninth and the tenth centuries has
been found. Even though it may not be Itil, it is still a settlement of significant size near the
Volga mouth that was inhabited by an agricultural and artisan population. (Zilivinskaia
and Vasil’ev 2006; Zilivinskaia, Vasil’ev, and Grechkina 2006; Zilivinskaia 2007).
152 Magomedov 1983, 97.
153 Dunlop 1967, 96; Golden 1980, 103; Zakhoder 1962, 141.
154 Baranov 1990, 78–81; see also Aibabin 2003, 55–64; Makarova 2003.