208 CHAPTER 4
the Khazar economy, as they did for the economy of Kievan Rus’, for example.
Khazaria mainly imported jewelry, beads and other, often luxury goods. Such
items were also produced in the khaganate itself. The Khazar production met
not only the domestic (Saltovo) needs. Khazar goods have been found in sev-
eral Slavic and Finno-Ugrian settlements in the forest-steppe and forest zones.159
S. Pletneva believes that the tenth century saw the emergence of an indepen-
dent Khazar artistic style within the applied arts. It includes several artifacts
from the Sarkel hoard from the mid-tenth century (the dirhams in it date from
the period 907–954 AD) that were produced in the court workshops of Itil. The
belt set from the hoard is typical precisely for the tenth century. Most probably
produced in Itil, such belt sets often reached Volga Bulgaria, the Crimea and
Kievan Rus’. “All wealthy warriors of Southeast Europe wore such belts, thus
emphasizing the unity of style that had spread at that time”. The hoard also
manifests the close ties between Sarkel and Itil during the stated period.160
The Lower Don area and the Crimean Peninsula can be regarded as the
most well-developed and rich lands of the western part of Khazaria during
the ninth and the tenth centuries. Constantine Porphyrogenitus was most
probably referring to them when he wrote about the nine climates (regions) of
Khazaria, adjacent to Alania. According to the Byzantine emperor, “from these
nine climates come all the livelihood and plenty of Khazaria”.161
In M. Artamonov’s view, the “climates” were located in the Crimea or the
Caucasus and were inhabited by an agricultural population that supplied the
still nomadic Khazars with all the necessary products.162 A. Novosel’tsev inter-
prets the meaning of the Byzantine emperor’s account in another way, assum-
ing that he was referring to the regions of Western Khazaria, described in
Joseph’s letter. This way, he identifies the peoples, subject to the khagan, with
the climates that were the administrative-territorial units of the Khazar state,
ruled by tuduns.163 In line with Joseph’s account, A. Novosel’tsev defines as
climates the lands of the Burtas, the Volga Bulgars, the Mari, some of the Slavs
and “some other territories, apparently in the Don Region”.164 He assumes that
159 Noonan 1995–1997, 283–284. According to Noonan 1995–1997, 284, “Saltovo craftsmen
produced for the domestic market within Khazaria and for the market to the north. In
short, Khazaria [.. .] was a major craft producer in its own right”. See also Kovalevskaia
2001 and 2002.
160 Pletneva 1996, 115 and 155–156; Makarova and Pletneva 1983.
161 Constantine Porphyrogenitus. De Administrando Imperio, ch. 10, in Litavrin and
Novosel’tsev 1989, 53.
162 Artamonov 1962, 363.
163 Novosel’tsev 1990, 108.
164 Novosel’tsev 1990, 108–109.