The Khazar Economy: Economic Integration or Disintegration? 215
of history” they pass through the centuries, influencing different societies and
peoples. Therefore, when assessing the works of L. Gumilev on Khazaria, one
must bear in mind that he was describing Soviet Russia.199
It could be postulated that many of the theories regarding the Khazar
state that were promoted in Soviet times have already been debunked by
science. Accordingly, in V. Petrukhin’s view, the Khazar economy was diverse
and depended on the traditions of the various peoples of the khaganate He
believes that Khazaria’s archaeological monuments are “a vivid illustration of
how an urban civilization emerged in a place where previously only steppes
and ancient mounds could be found”.200 In V. Flerov’s opinion, archaeological
excavations have revealed “a sustainable and self-sufficient state”.201 According
to T. Noonan, the agriculture, stock-breeding and handicrafts were equally well
developed in Khazaria. Often, all three could be found in one settlement.202 The
historian identifies several areas where stock-breeding was predominant, like
the Lower Volga’s surroundings, including Volgograd Oblast or Voroshilovgrad
Oblast along the Severski Donets.203 In T. Noonan’s opinion, the nomadic and
(semi)sedentary peoples traded actively in the khaganate. “Many small produc-
ers traded their grain or animals for the foods, tools, and supplies they needed
to survive”.204 The regions with a well-developed agriculture and handicrafts
were interspersed with areas dominated by nomadic pastoralism. Among the
main reasons for this were the climate and the environment, since agriculture
could not be developed everywhere.205
4.6 The Impact of Climate on Khazaria’s Development
There are many theories that try to explain the impact of climate on nomad-
ism or the sedentarization processes. A drier climate was among the causes
199 This side of L. Gumilev’s work was pointed out to me by A. Kal’onski, for which I am
grateful. On the image of the Khazars in Russia, as well as the theories of L. Gumilev, see
Shnirelman 2005, 2006, and 2007; Kizlov and Mikhailova 2004; Tortika and Mikheev 2004.
200 Petrukhin 2006a, 23.
201 Flerov 2006, 61.
202 Noonan 1995–1997, 293.
203 Noonan 1995–1997, 264.
204 Noonan 1995–1997, 290.
205 Noonan 1995–1997, 264. This view is shared by Novosel’tsev 1990, 114, according to whom
settlement occurred in places with favorable conditions for agriculture. Areas where the
conditions did not aid agriculture continued to be dominated by pastoral nomadism. See
also Stepanov 2002b, 32–35.