The Khazar Economy: Economic Integration or Disintegration? 217
between the eighth and the twelfth centuries and the cooling that followed
afterwards could hardly have exceeded 1° C.212
According to L. Gumilev, a period of significant climate warming occurred
between the late ninth and the early eleventh centuries. That was the time
when the level of the Caspian Sea rose. The scholar builds a plausible-sounding
theory regarding the impact of such periods on the peoples of the steppe and
forest zones. In his view, climate changes are affected by changes in the direc-
tion of the Atlantic cyclones. And since the Caspian Sea receives water mainly
from the Volga, the rise in its level signified an increase in the humidity of the
forest zone. Swamps appeared in the low parts of the Volga-Oka Interfluve, and
rivers swelled, causing big floods that proved detrimental for the development
of the local economies. At the same time, the steppes dried out and turned
into a desert. The strength of the steppe peoples waned and they were forced
to split into smaller groups and seek refuge in more humid places. This is how
L. Gumilev explains the migration of the Pechenegs across the steppes of the
Northern Black Sea region, where during the late ninth century the conditions
of living were better than in the Asian Steppes. Climate warming, however, did
not cause any damages in the Khazar state and even led towards its greatest
power by stripping the surrounding peoples of their resistance abilities; fur-
thermore, the Khazar economy was based on trade which was not affected by
climate changes.213
L. Gumilev is referring to the Judaized elite of the khaganate. The Khazars’
own economy was negatively affected by the warming of the climate. Their
fields and gardens were flooded by the Caspian Sea.214 At the same time, the
conditions in the Terek Valley deteriorated, but those in the Don Valley did not,
since this river gathers its waters in the forest zone where the humidity levels
had risen.215
Climate changes are certainly of great importance, but the application of
any general theory carries a risk of allowing many inaccuracies. The natural
diversity of the steppe and its surroundings suggests various possibilities for
development, triggered by the same climate changes. This is also stated by
L. Gumilev himself regarding the valleys of the Terek and Don Rivers. This
is why his conclusions and especially their general application are met with
numerous objections.
212 Ladurie 1971, 179–187.
213 Gumilev 1997, 65–66 and 211–213; Gumilev 2003, 60–63 and 114; Gumilev 1977, 97. For more
details on the theory of climate changes, see Gumilev 1966; Aleksin and Gumilev 1963.
214 Gumilev 2003, 114.
215 Gumilev 2003, 179.