246 CHAPTER 5
In Dagestan, such are the walls from the third (Khazar) building period of
the Verkhnii Chiriurt hillfort, the fortress near Teng-Kala, as well as the Sigitma,
Nekrasovka and Shelkovsk hillforts.93 The square form of the last three hill-
forts prompted G. Afanas’ev to associate them (along with the Khumarinsk fort
and other fortresses of the fourth type) with the Byzantine (Antique) building
tradition.94
Without denying a possible influence from Byzantium, M. Magomedov pre-
sumes that the erection of fortresses with a symmetric plan in Dagestan is due
to the building traditions of Middle Asia where such fortresses existed already
during the time of the Parthians.95 The historian believes that “the fortifica-
tion of ancient Khazaria is related to Middle Asian traditions not only in gen-
eral techniques, but also in the various construction details. The exponents of
these traditions were, obviously, the Khazars themselves, being closely con-
nected to the ethnocultural world of Middle Asia”.96
The building traditions of Volga Bulgaria (for example, in Biliar or the
Murom Township) are also linked to Middle Asia, Iran and the Middle East.97
The fortresses of the Oghuz along the lower reaches of the Syr Darya (“the
marsh hillforts”) had a square ground-plan as well and were built with alter-
nating layers of bricks and rammed clay.98 Square in shape fortifications, built
with ramparts and moats, are representative of the traditions of the steppe
peoples. Such, for example, is the Ivolga hillfort of the Huns.99
Of special interest is a row of 12 square hillforts, fortified with ramparts
and moats (with bricks as one of the building materials) that the Uyghurs
erected in Tuva (in the eighth century). Almost all of them are connected by
a wall with a moat 230 km long.100 They are reminiscent of Bulgarian fortifi-
cations, built of ramparts and moats and situated in a row. For example, the
Great Earthen Vallum, which stretches for 54 km and along which are situated
93 Magomedov 1938, 140; Magomedov 1994, 113; Magomedov 2005, 77–78. The alternation of
rammed clay and brick layers is also typical for the Dzhetyasar culture (Vainberg 1990, 183;
Levina 1996, 18).
94 Afanas’ev 1993, 138–140.
95 Magomedov 1983, 142; Magomedov 1994, 114; Magomedov 2005, 79.
96 Magomedov 1983, 143.
97 Davletshin 1990, 39; Matveeva and Kochkina 2005, 30.
98 Tolstov 1947a, 58–65.
99 Kradin 2001a, 81; Kliashtornyi and Sultanov 2000, 61; Kyzlasov 1998, 53; more than ten
square Hunnic hillforts are known, all fortified with walls of rammed clay and ramparts
and moats. The “Derestui castle” consisted of square outer walls that encompassed a
square citadel (Kyzlasov 1998, 49–57).
100 Kyzlasov 1959, 66–73; Stepanov 2005a, 28.