The Ideology Of The Ninth And Tenth Centuries 49
sovereignty of the bek is entirely derived from Arabo-Persian sources from the
tenth century (the earliest one is by Ibn Rustah). Without diminishing their
importance, it is clear that this is a series of accounts, in which the form of
government of the Magyars and the Rus’ is identical to the Khazar one.
The dual kingdom (or kingship) is represented by two different models,
both as a structure of state government and as an understanding of the separa-
tion of powers. According to the first one, the power is divided evenly between
two rulers who govern different parts of the state. In the steppe world the state
is usually divided into an eastern and a western part (a north-south division is
also possible), the eastern having a higher status. Sometimes the eastern and
western parts are subject to a central one, as was the case with the first sig-
nificant steppe empire with a government system, documented in sources, the
empire of the Huns (the Hunnu Empire). Their elite consisted of four clans,
only one of which (Luandi) had the right to appoint the supreme ruler—the
Chanyu. His power was sacralized and his official title was “Born by the Sky and
the Earth, enthroned by the Sun and the Moon, the great Hunnic Chanyu”. The
formula “born by the Sky” became universally valid for all supreme steppe rul-
ers in the following centuries. It would be safe to assume that this formula was
known among the steppe tribes even before the time of the Huns.
The Hunnic Chanyu held the administrative and military power, while also
performing the functions of supreme judge and high priest. Directly below him
in rank were the “wise princes”, one for the eastern and one for the western
part of the country. They were sons or very close relatives of the Chanyu. They
had considerable power and relative autonomy, including on matters concern-
ing war and peace. The heir to the throne (the oldest son of the ruler) ruled
over the Left (eastern) Wing. The representatives of the other three clans were
actually exogamous partners of the ruling Luandi clan. They exercised judicial
functions in the Left and Right Wing of the empire.138 It is clear that in the case
of the Huns there can hardly be talk of a diarchy. This, however, does not mean
138 Kliashtornyi and Sultanov 2000, 62–63; Kliashtornyi 2003; Stoianov 2004a, 39–40;
Zhumaganbetov 2006, 156; Kradin 2001a, 138–140, 145–148, 204, and 226. Over time this
system was reformed. The center was eliminated and the empire was divided into two
wings, with the ruler governing the left (eastern) one. The system of succession to the
throne was also changed, with the power no longer being passed from father to son, but
from brother to brother, uncle to nephew, etc. (Kradin 2001a, 56, 145, 216, 225, and 227).
“Eventually, the principle of corulership triumphed [.. .] the population and the territory
of the nomadic community were divided into two wings, governed by two corulers. One
of them was also the supreme ruler of the whole community. The junior wing’s subjection
to the senior one was often not of an actual political nature, but of a genealogical one.
The position of the junior coruler was inherited within his own lineage but his successors