Technology—manufacturing Techniques 295
mean that they could no longer be used as weapons. Moreover, secondary
burning also leaves traces of nitrites on the surface.20 Consequently, second-
ary burning could not result in the sort of preservation or features described by
Dezső Csallány and István Bóna21 but rather their opposite.
The theory of iron casting and die forging also emerged in connection with
these spearheads (P.I.A) and stirrups with rectangular loops. Iron casting
spread relatively late during the 18th century in Europe, while it was already
known in China around 500 BC during the period of the Warring Kingdoms.
Originally the technique of iron forging was unknown in Ancient China. This
iron casting could result in the mass production of iron artefacts in China, cre-
ating a large amount of identical and relatively simple artefacts. It was mainly
used for casting vessels and bells but agricultural tools were also produced by
use of this method. Over time, the use of forging appeared alongside iron cast-
ing, as a result of which weapons begun to instead forged.22 Iron casting was
also known in Inner Asia, with cast iron cauldrons being used by the Xiongnus.23
The question of forging or casting is only to be solved by metallographic
analyses of such iron artefacts. Unfortunately, the only spearhead examined
is that from grave No. 129 at Környe. This spearhead was made of an iron of
low phosphor and uneven carbon-content, its crystal structure being fine with
ferrite-pearlitic structure, while its carbon content is low: only 0.7 %.24 The
spearhead was of good quality but relatively simple structure, having been
forged, with cementation used as a surface treatment. The material of this
spearhead is similar to that of the stirrup with rectangular loop from the same
burial. Piaskowski even supposed the same bloomery workshop where the
20 The physical characteristics of secondary burning are described by Radomir Pleiner
(2006, 69). This phenomenon can be observed on weapons burnt on a pyre together with
the deceased, with such weapons usually being bent (Williams 2005, 260–264).
21 Presumably this theory based on the confusion of cementation with secondary burning
(Bóna 1971a, 240).
22 In fact, the technology of bronze casting was developed further by iron casting in China.
Iron casting was already known in the 5th century BC in China, melting iron-ore at higher
temperatures than in contemporary Europe due to its high carbon-content. (Needham
1958; Barnard 1961; Needham 1964, 398–404; Rostoker – Bronson – Dvorak – Shen 1983,
196–210; Wagner 1992, 335–361).
23 Such a bucket-shaped cast iron cauldron was found in the Xiongnu cemetery of Egiin Gol.
A cast iron vessel was found during the French excavations of Gol Mod in 2006 (Törbat
et al. 2003, 152. 235).
24 Piaskowski 1974, 122. Iron casting can be excluded by the low carbon-content of the arte-
facts, since cast iron objest are usually of high carbon-content (Wagner 1992, 336).