50 CHAPTER 1
long, lenticular crystals known as martensite providing extreme hardness and
brittleness. Quench hardening in salty or soapy water could temper this effect201
as a result of which the more stable and less brittle bainite could be formed.202
The martensite crystal structure is extremely hard and brittle, therefore
such structure is not suitable for sword blades. If it occurs during the process
of forging it can be corrected by tempering resulting in a finer pearlitic crys-
tal structure. This process could be accomplished in lower (300°C) or higher
(5–600°C) temperatures resulting in softer and less brittle steel.203
A modern way of surface hardening is enrichment in nitrogene: nitridation,
although according to our present knowledge this procedure was not used in
early medieval times, the only known iron artefacts with nitrite coming from
cremation burials and the structure a consequence of secondary burning.204
Finally, the forged sword was planished by hammering, while the plain blade
was whetted, chiseled and its tip was shaped.205
The manufacture of a sword did not end at this point, since some edged
weapons were fitted with a crossguard which could be formed using two vari-
ous processes: either bent from an iron rod or a flat oval crossguard was forged
and pierced by a drill.206 In most cases the crossguard was not placed directly
on the stem of the blade, but an iron spacer was used as a base. The crossguard
was decorated with various methods: gold or silver wire inlay in iron207 or it
was covered with gold or silver sheets.
The hilt of the sword was made from hard wood (mainly beech) of oval cross
section which was usually fixed by rivets to the flat iron hilt-tongue. The iron or
copper alloy fixing rivets could be decorated with rosettes or rhombs. The end of
the hilt was covered with an oval cap made of iron, copper alloy or silver sheet.
The blade was protected by a wooden (usually soft wood like lime) scab-
bard covered with leather, the cross section of which was usually similar to
that of the blade. It was reinforced by metal bands decorated with stamped
gold, silver or copper alloy sheets, with the tip of the scabbard covered with a
cylindrical or conical chape.
Similar procedures were used to form a spearhead, but the main difference
between their manufacture was in the sequence of these processes: first the
201 Supposedly that was the reason why urine or blood was used in the hardening of swords.
202 Pleiner 2006, 68–69.
203 Pleiner 2006, 69.
204 Pleiner 2006, 70.
205 Pleiner 2006, 64.
206 Pleiner 2004, 199; Pleiner 2006, 58; Szabó 2001, 3.4.
207 Heinrich-Tamáska 2005, 92–98.