52 CHAPTER 1
Every manufacturing process will inevitably leave traces on the iron arte-
facts and some of these are perceptible even on artefacts from archaeologi-
cal contexts, although the majority of such traces are only accessible through
archaeo-metallographic examination. There are several different methods for
such analyses which can be usefully divided into two major groups: destructive
and non-destructive methods.
Both the composition and structure of these materials can be analysed
non-destructively,213 however, such methods (X-ray emission, spectroscopy,
electron microscope) usually examine only one point of the surface and as a
result of which provide only very limited information on the metal structure
of the artefact. The examination of chemical composition can be gravimet-
ric, using weighing, or polarometric, using spectroscopy. Both methods can be
used for iron artefacts: the phosphore (P) and mangane (Mn) content could
be detected gravimetrically, while its nickel (Ni) and copper (Cu) content by
polarometric methods.214
Analyses based on radiation could offer relevant information on the mate-
rial structure of the artefacts, like CT or X-ray.215 Pattern welding,216 inner frac-
tures and welding traces can be detected by X-ray.
The destructive methods can provide greater information on the material
structure of the artefacts: the forging and the quality of iron. These examina-
tions include sampling and microscopic analysis (magnification of 6–10×) of
the polished sample. This phase can reveal non-metallic particles, while the
metallic structure of the sample is examined, after etching the surface with
acid,217 by a metal microscope (magnification of 50–500×).218 The composi-
tion, bending and surface treatment of an iron artefact can be identified using
these methods.
Some destructive analyses of pattern welding do not include sampling: for-
mer sword blades were etched by acid, destroying the high-carbon steel parts
of the blade.219 A German archaeologist, Stefan Mäder presented a traditional
method of Japanese sword polishers: he polished the whole surface of sword
213 These non-destructive analyses are described by Tóth – Crutzen 1999.
214 Pleiner 1967, 79.
215 Tóth – Crutzen 1999, 17–23.
216 Koch 1977, 98. Taf. 182–188. The pattern welding of the sword blade from Csolnok was
examined by X-ray (Somlósi 1988, 207–210).
217 Radomír Pleiner used nitale (a solution of alcohol and nitric acid) for this purpose
(Pleiner 1967, 78).
218 Pleiner 1967, 78–79.
219 Böhne – Dannheimer 1961, 107–122.