the disintegration of the empire 121
from china by sea, and together with his father and uncle crossed the
ilkhanate from south to north in 1293–1294, then returned from trebi-
zond via constantinople and negroponte to venice.271
the commerce that started to flow along the tabriz-Kashan-Yezd-Kir-
man-ormuz route in the early 1290s, thus laid the foundations for one of
the most important shifts in the eurasian trade network.
river traffic on the euphrates had never entirely dried up, although it
suffered in the wake of the mongol campaigns, from the consequences of
the destruction of Baghdad in 1258 and then again from the permanent
state of war on the ilkhanid-mamluk frontier.272 marco polo remarks on
the state of river commerce in 1271 on his way to ayas.273 he also knew
about trade on the tigris, whether from this stage of his journey or his
return from china in 1293–1294, and knew that this other great iraqi
waterway was used for traffic.274 further information on this commerce in
the latter thirteenth century can be found in the oriental authors shams
al-dīn al-dimishqī and abu ’l-fidā’, and particularly in their contempo-
rary marino sanudo.275
although marco polo mentions ayas specifically, it was not the only
final outlet for goods brought across the southern seas into these two
great waterways. as well as cilician armenia, they reached the whole of
the syria-palestine region, a natural mediterranean end-point for goods
271 polo/Benedetto, pp. 12–13.
272 cf. ashtor, History, p. 264.
273 Encore hi a sor la mer une ville qui est apellé Laias, la qual est de gran mercandie. Car
sachiés tout voiremant que tutes le speserie et les dras de fratere [= euphrates] se portent a
ce(ste) ville et toutes autres chier coses; et le mercans de Venese et de Jene et de toutes pars hi
vinent et l’acatent. Et tous homes et mercans que vuelent aler en fraterre prenent lor voie de
ceste ville (polo/Benedetto, p. 14).
274 after praising the trading opportunties to be had in the “kingdom” of mosul, he
described its location and connections as follows: Et por me la cité passe un flum mout
grant [= tigris] et por celu flum poit (l’en) ben aler en la mer de Yndie. Et hi alent et vinent
les mercaant con los mercandies. Et sachiés que le flum est lonc, de Baudac [= Baghdad] a
la mer d’Endie, bien XVIII jornee. E les mercaans que vuelent aler en Yndie vont por cel flum
jusque a une cité qui a non Chisi [= Kish island] et d’iluec entrarent en la mer de Yndie.
Et encore vos di que sor cel flum, entre Baudac et Chisi, a une gran cité que a non Bascra
[= Basra] (ibid., p. 18).
275 cf. ashtor, History, p. 265; at the beginning of the fourteenth century, sanudo/
Bongars, p. 22, writes of Baghdad’s flourishing situation in the previous century as a centre
where the Western-held cities on the eastern mediterranean shore could acquire orien-
tal wares: Maior enim pars speciariae & mercimoniorum, quae ad Occidentem antiquitus
ducebatur, consueuit per Baldac facere viam suam & exinde per Antiochiam et per Liciam
ducebatur ad nostrum mare: & tunc temporis speciariae et alia mercimonia Indiae & habun-
dantius & pro minori praetio habebantur, quam habentur ad praesens.