Preface
Russian expansion has been a subject of deep concern to European
and Asian states ever since Peter the Great established his country as
a major power. This process of expansion transformed the map of two
continents and sparked a host of sometimes violent rivalries from
Peter the Great's first war with the Ottoman Empire (1695-1700) to
the American "containment" policy of the mid-twentieth century.
One of the areas in which Russian penetration has been particularly
significant is Iran. For nearly two centuries, relations between these
two countries have been characterized by mistrust, recrimination,
and, occasionally, armed conflict. To Russian expansionists, this con-
frontation represented the honorable pursuit of national interests
with regard to defense, commerce, and the advance of civilization in
the face of opposition by a backward state oblivious to the common
good. It also marked the opening of a new stage in the development
of the Russian Empire. To the traditional pattern of annexation of
contiguous territories was added the conquest of a remote, relatively
populous, settled area analogous to western Europe's overseas colo-
nies in Latin America and India. To many Iranians, the growth of
Russian power at Iranian expense was gravely unsettling. They felt
the humiliation of defeat in war and the loss of valued territory. This
in turn compounded the country's serious economic problems which
made its government vulnerable to pressure from Russia and Britain.
All of this damaged the prestige of the Qajar dynasty (1796-1925),
while causing some of its subjects to consider the desirability of
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