rated the impatient child. There was an argument, ending with Mo-
hammad 'Ali's promise to kill 'Abbas whenever the opportunity
arose.^32
'Abbas was not a natural warrior. A sickly youth, he had to work
hard to develop the physical skills at which his older brother excelled
naturally. He suffered recurring bouts of ill health throughout his
life—hepatitis, venereal disease, dropsy—and by the time he reached
his twenties, he had begun to age prematurely. He was a man of con-
siderable charm and dignity whose large, expressive eyes, flashing
smile, and attentive listening won the affections of the European
emissaries, at least until the war ended and they decided that he had
failed to reform Azerbaijan along western lines. Having charge of the
war against Russia could have enhanced his reputation, but it might
also have damaged it if he were defeated. That would have strength-
ened Mohammad 'Ali's hand in the expected battle for the throne.
Therefore, it is possible, as some Europeans charged, that 'Abbas's
interest in reforms was superficial, that he viewed reforms—especially
westernizing ones—as a panacea, and that his court was filled with
sycophants who encouraged this illusion. What the proponents of
this view do not mention is that he had good reason to be disen-
chanted with reforms. The shah encouraged him but would not give
him adequate support, while the French and British dropped him
when they no longer needed him. Whatever his motives, he invested
no small energy in reforms. His direct contact was primarily with
military reforms, which he gave his vigorous support in a host of
ways. Civilian reforms were left primarily in the capable hands of
his chief vizier, Mirza Bozorg, who had grown up in Shiraz and had
had more extensive contact with European traders. Mirza Bozorg
gained his earliest administrative experience under Karim Khan Zand
and later rose to prominence in the service of Aqa Mohammad. He
impressed quite a few European visitors with his probity and concern
for the public good. By the later war years, Azerbaijan was considered
one of the most prosperous, best governed provinces of the empire.^33
Pierre Jaubert, who was sent to Iran by Napoleon in 1805, expressed
the prevailing European admiration for 'Abbas when he wrote:
This prince possesses enough instruction to feel the need to acquire more....
No one among the Persians esteems the sciences and arts of Europe more than
he. ... In sum everything predicts that if he mounts the throne of Persia some-
day he would display qualities which would make him be counted in the number
of the greatest sovereigns who have reigned over this vast empire.^34Mohammad 'Ali was jealous of 'Abbas's position as heir presump-116 The War, 1804-1813