tive and leader of the war against Russia. He belittled 'Abbas's accom-
plishments in battle and claimed he could do better if given the
chance. 'Abbas supported military westernization and was the object
of great attention by French and British emissaries. Therefore, Mo-
hammad 'Ali proclaimed his dedication to the traditional style of
warfare. He repeatedly criticized Europeans and their ways as inimical
to Islam. However, he also wanted to be included in the dealings
with those same European emissaries and had a few French and Ital-
ians train a contingent of his soldiers in the European manner. Accord-
ing to rumor, his traditional army exceeded by several thousand the
size allowed by the shah. The purpose of his army, supposedly, was
to make ready for his seizure of power. He pressed the shah to allow
him to join in the war against Russia and finally obtained permission
in 1809. The resulting campaign did nothing to advance the Iranian
cause. All that was accomplished was that Mohammad 'Ali and his
troops plundered Muslim tribes along the Georgian border and then
returned heavily laden. Since the attack he was supposed to make on
the Russians never occurred, the Russians were able to concentrate
their efforts on fighting 'Abbas's army in Ganjeh. 'Abbas and his men
narrowly escaped the encircling Russians. Mohammad 'Ali repeatedly
pressured the shah for permission to campaign elsewhere. So strong
was the assumption that he planned to seize power that, when he
campaigned in Baghdad in 1811, rumors spread that he intended to
use his large army to take the throne on his return. In fact, no such
attempt was made.^35
Although the shah feared a coup by one of his sons, it was precise-
ly that fear that kept him from strengthening 'Abbas's position or
curbing the ambitions of other sons. He occasionally compared 'Abbas
favorably to the others, citing in particular 'Abbas's avoidance of
luxury and his dedication to winning the war. After the 1809 debacle,
he even gave 'Abbas temporary jurisdiction over the military affairs
of Kermanshah as a reproof to Mohammad 'Ali. He also tried to dis-
tract his volatile eldest son with a large harem but to no avail. Yet
he was reluctant to emphasize 'Abbas's status as heir by making a
formal declaration or by making 'Abbas a cosignatory to a treaty of
alliance with Britain. The shah believed he had to encourage the am-
bitions of each son to prevent their rebellion. With several sons, mili-
tary success was touted to be the key to advancement. There is a
possibility that Fath 'Ali withheld some of the assistance he might
otherwise have given 'Abbas for fear of making this son too strong."^36
Fath 'Ali's adult sons also played a role in Iran's economic troubles,
which in turn hampered the country's war effort. The shah had to
The War, 1804-1813 117