with some of the soldiers serving in the new units and also with religious
leaders. Although the new uniforms preserved a few elements of tradi-
tional dress, the overall appearance was European —and therefore
vaguely Russian. The new drill was similarly tainted. Some Iranians
argued that to dress in this manner and submit to this discipline was
a betrayal of Islam. 'Abbas responded by wearing the new-style uni-
form and learning the drill himself. In the early stages of the reform,
he also had the new units train where they could not be seen so as to
avoid provoking opposition. The shah openly demonstrated his support
for the reforms by having members of his own court wear the new
uniforms and ordering the prince-governor of Shiraz to do likewise.
Some of the lulama (Islamic religious leaders) as well as 'Abbas's politi-
cal rivals, argued that the presence of infidels in Iran was injurious
and the adaptation of infidel fighting methods contradicted the exam-
ple set by Mohammad. Mirza Bozorg counterattacked by obtaining
the endorsement of other 'ulama and circulating Koranic references
to the armies of the Prophet fighting in dense groups (the implication
being that this was like the European carre}. The government rationale
was that it was reviving the practice of early Islam, which Christians
had learned but the faithful had forgotten. 'Abbas used the distribution
of British-made flags to the new infantry, cavalry, and artillery corps
as an occasion to propagandize for the reforms. In separate ceremonies
for each of the three branches, he had a prominent member of the
'ulama bless the flags and tell the troops that they should regard the
flags as they would the banner of the Prophet; they should choose
death over the loss of their flags.
Discipline was another major problem. The Western-style army was
composed of men from various Azerbaijani tribes, but each tribe had
to be kept separate. (For example, under British tutelage, there were
separate regiments of Shaqaqis, Kangerlus, and Shahsavans.) 'Abbas's
repeated attempts to reorganize the army along nontribal lines failed;
the soldiers' tribal solidarity was often stronger than their military
discipline. Not surprisingly, officers from the traditional army also
opposed the innovations. Given the vested opposition to the reforms
and the novelty and stringency of the new regimen, discipline was hard
to maintain. 'Abbas tried to improve the attitude of the soldiers in
the new army through rewards—higher pay for the rank and file, land
grants, and gold and silver medals. He put himself under the command
of his foreign officers when he participated in the infantry and artil-
lery training and recognized those officers' complete authority in dis-
ciplining the troops. During the period of British influence, a soldier
who appealed to 'Abbas about the punishment meted out by a foreign
128 France and Britain in Iran