IIThe Iranian Empire
and the Caucasian Borderlands
at the End
of the Eighteenth Century
The most salient feature of late eighteenth century Iran was its dis-
unity. No shah ruled unchallenged over all the provinces that had
comprised the Safavi domains. After the fall of Esfahan, the Af-
ghans controlled most of the south, center, and east; the Ottomans,
the west; and the Russians, part of the Caspian coast. At the same
time, Turcoman raids from across the northeastern frontier contri-
buted to the breakdown of order in the eastern and central provin-
ces. Tahmasb, who had fled north from the capital, proclaimed him-
self shah and attempted to rebuild the empire. He was abetted in
this by the Afshar tribal chieftain Tahmasb Qoli Khan. In 1732, once
most of Iran was reunited under Tahmasb's suzerainty, Tahmasb
Qoli deposed the shah and ruled under the guise of regent for the
shah's infant son. Four years later, he seized the throne outright
and proclaimed himself Nader Shah, first ruler of the Afshar dynasty.
His reign was dominated by warfare: conquests, as in the northwest,
where he forced the eastern Caucasus into submission; raids, notably
on India and Central Asia; and the suppression of domestic opposi-
tion. With his assassination in 1747, central authority collapsed.
For the next half century, the provinces that had comprised the
Safavi empire were governed by a variety of local rulers, some of
whom used puppet Safavi princes to legitimize their authority,
though without seriously intending to restore the fallen dynasty.
The most successful of these local rulers was Karim Khan, leader of
the Zand tribe, whose power was based on the southern province of
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