Iranian Empire and Caucasian Borderlands 13religious literature, and employ the clergy of their faith for their
congregations. The capital of Armenian Christiandom was Echmiadzin
(Uch Kelisia) in Yerevan, where the Catholicos resided. There were
reports from Christian sources of the persecution of Qarabaghi Arme-
nians in reaction to King Erekle's alliance with Russia in 1783, but
the issue in this case was political, not religious, since the Qarabaghi
Armenians had asked Russia to take them under its protection and
overthrow the ruler.^3
Political and military leadership in each principality was in the
hands of a khan. (The title conveys a variety of meanings, including
tribal chieftain, military commander, and notable.) The khans' powers
were extremely broad, including final judgment in all matters subject
to secular common law (*urf) and the authority to decide the life or
death of the accused. Yet there were also certain constraints on their
authority. In some khanates, they were expected to consult with a
council of notables before deciding matters of political and military
import or judging criminal cases. Moreover, when a khan violated
traditional norms, he might be exposed to the wrath of his subjects.
In the eighteenth century, there were successful uprisings against
harsh or otherwise unpopular rulers in Shirvan, Shakki, and Ganjeh.
A khan was not only the ruler of his territory, he was to a consi-
derable extent its owner. Inhabitants engaged in farming or animal
husbandry paid the khan a fraction of their harvests or flocks as rent
for the use of the land. Hunting, fishing, and the exploitation of
mineral resources were farmed out as concessions that often proved
valuable sources of the khan's revenue. Commercial activities, such
as the export of a valuable commodity and the ownership of shops,
also belonged to the khan. He also levied taxes such as import and
export duties, a sales tax on most domestic staples, and the head tax
on adult males. In keeping with Islamic tradition, Christians and
Jews paid a higher tax, about double what the Muslims paid. There
were also unofficial sources of revenue, including widespread gift
giving by people seeking a khan's favor.
In theory the office of khan was inherited through the male line
in each principality, but political rivalries and chance occurrences
disrupted the succession in most khanates. Although there was a
preference for succession by the eldest son, the issue was more often
resolved on the basis of who was sufficiently strong and experienced
to take and hold power. Power struggles among members of the ruling
families led to bitter feuds in Baku, Shirvan, Shakki, and Qarabagh,
while rivalries with neighbors led to the deposition and murder of
khans of Shirvan and Ganjeh.