The ritsuryo ̄ state19 Yoshikawa Shinji, “Ritsuryō taisei no keisei,” 213; Sakaue Yasutoshi, “Shimahyō kokō hendō kiroku
mokkan wo meguru shomondai,” 164–181.
20 Yoshikawa Shinji, “Ritsuryō daijōkansei to gōgisei,” first published in 1988, as well as his
“Chokufuron.”
21 Enomoto Jun’ichi, “ Japan’s Ritsuryō System in the ‘East Asian World’,” 2–17.
22 Kanegae Hiroyuki, “Fujiwarakyō zōeiki no Nihon ni okeru gairai chishiki no sesshu to naisei hōshin,”
70–81.
23 Yi Sŏngshi, “Shiragi Bunbu, Shinbun’ō jidai no shūken seisaku to koppinsei.” Discussions of the bone
rank system and the relationship between early Japan and early Korea in English appear in Richard J.
Miller, Ancient Japanese Nobility: The Kabane Ranking System; William Wayne Farris, Sacred Texts and
Buried Treasures; Yi Ki- dong, “Silla’s Kolp’um System and Japan’s Kabane System”; C.S. Kim, “The
Kolp’um System”; Hong Wontack, Paekche of Korea and the Origin of Yamato Japan and Ancient Korea–
Japan Relations: Paekche and the Origin of the Yamato Dynasty.
24 Ōsumi Kiyoharu, “Taihō ritsuryō no rekishiteki isō,” 231.
25 Sakaue Yasutoshi, “Ritsuryōsei no seiritsu,” 13–25.
26 See especially Ikeda On’s remarks in Aoki Kazuo et al., Shinpojiumu Nihon rekishi ritsuryō kokkaron, 101;
Yoshida Takashi, “ ‘Ritsuryō kokka’ to ‘kōchi kōmin,’ ” 37–39.
27 Yoshida Takashi, “Henkosei, handensei no kōzōteki tokushitsu,” 202; Urata (Yoshie) Akiko, “Henko-
sei no igi,” 52. Comprehensive descriptions of the ritsuryō military system and its evolution appear in
Karl Friday, Hired Swords: The Rise of Private Warrior Power in Early Japan; and William Wayne Farris,
Heavenly Warriors: The Evolution of Japan’s Military, 500–1300.
28 Yoshinaga Masafumi, “Ritsuryō gundansei no seiritsu to kōzō,” 55; Shimomukai Tatsuhiko, “Nihon
ritsuryō gunsei no kihon kōzō,” 37.
29 Asakawa, The Early Institutional Life of Japan; George Sansom, “Early Japanese Law and Administration”;
Robert Karl Reischauer, Early Japanese History; John Whitney Hall, Government and Local Power in Japan,
500–1700. The quoted phrase is from Sansom, A History of Japan to 1334, 69.
30 Richard J. Miller, Japan’s First Bureaucracy: A Study of Eighth- Century Government, 6.
31 James Crump, Jr., “ ‘Borrowed’ T’ang Titles and Officers in the Yōrō Code,” 40. See also his “T’ang
Penal Law in Early Japan.”
32 Yoshida Takashi, “ ‘Ritsuryō kokka’ to ‘kōchi kōmin,’ ” 31.
33 Hori Toshikazu, “Chūgoku ni okeru ritsuryōsei no tenkai,” 73. Similarly, Robert Borgen reminds us
that the meritocratic principles that dominated Chinese government by the time of the Song dynasty
(960–1279) represented no less a departure from the early Tang polity than subsequent Japanese devel-
opments did. The crucial difference was that Japanese and Chinese governance evolved in opposite
directions, the latter becoming more bureaucratic, and the former more hereditary. This evolutionary
divergence, he warns, has often anachronistically colored historians’ perceptions of Japanese “failures”
in adopting Chinese institutions of government. See Sugawara no Michizane and the Early Heian
Court, 79.
34 Seki Akira, “Ritsuryō shihaisō no seiritsu to sono kōzō,” 177; Ōtsu Tōru, “Ritsuryō kokka to
kinai,” 3–74.
35 Inoue Mitsusada, “Nihon no ritsuryō taisei,” 150. This study was first published in 1971.
36 Ishimoda Shō, Nihon no kodai kokka, 325–327. Ishimoda’s views have been sharply criticized by Yoshida
Akira and Ōmachi Ken, who assert that it was not the district magistrates but the village heads below
them who were in charge of managing relations of production. See Yoshida Akira, “Shuchōsei ron,”
119–120, and Nihon kodai sonrakushi jōsetsu, 53–79, 280–285; Ōmachi Ken, “Ritsuryō-seiteki gunjisei
no tokushitsu to tenkai,” 143–196, and “Ritsuryō kokka to sonraku shuchōsei,” 85–106.
37 Abe Takehiko, “Kodai zokuchō keishō no mondai ni tsuite,” 97–98; Seki Akira, “Taika zengo no tennō
kenryoku ni tsuite,” 70–71, and “Ritsuryō kizokuron,” 380–382. Descriptions and analyses of the
court rank system and the yin rank provisions appear in Joan Piggott, The Emergence of Japanese Kingship,
179–184; William and Helen McCullough, “Some Notes on Rank and Office.”; or James Crump, Jr.,
“ ‘Borrowed’ T’ang Titles and Offices.” For an example of the Japanese emperor cast as oriental despot,
see Takahashi Tomio, “Ritsuryō tennōsei no kōzō to sono seiritsu.”
38 Ishio Yoshihisa, Nihon kodai no tennōsei to daijōkan seido, 197; Ishimoda Shō, Nihon no kodai kokka, 195.
Ishio characterized the Japanese imperial system as a kind of hereditary charismatic monarchy, and the
ritsuryō bureaucracy as an officialdom of family status and property. This concept of charismatic mon-
archy is explicated in Max Weber, On Charisma and Institution Building.