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From classical to medieval?
O ̄cho ̄ kokka, kenmon taisei, and the
Heian court
Mikael S. Adolphson
Japan’s Heian age (794–1185) witnessed unprecedented production in the cultural sphere, result-
ing in such famous literary works as the Genji monogatari, religious constructions such as the
Byōdōin in Uji, as well as the impressive monastic complexes of Enryakuji, Onjōji, Tōji, and
Kōyasan. But these accomplishments occurred in the context of a socio- political environment
that changed considerably from the emperor- centered state that was envisioned in the Nara
period. In short, the emperor, who had during the move from Nara in 784 and the following
half- century maintained direct control of the imperial court, came to share much of that power,
if not most of it, with high- ranking nobles. Furthermore, the late Heian period saw military
aristocrats and their followers become influential in the capital, ushering in first a diarchy between
the Heian court and the Kamakura shogunate (1185–1333) and then a rule dominated by war-
riors in the Ashikaga age (1336–1573). The challenge for historians, then, has been to reconcile
the cultural accomplishments of the Heian and Kamakura periods with these changes in the
socio- political structures, while not succumbing to the creation of a simplistic narrative that
overemphasizes one group over another.
In describing the changes that occurred during this period, Japanese scholars have used a range
of theories and approaches, although early postwar scholarship was especially committed to a
Marxist framework, seeing the various historical stages as having been characterized by tensions
among classes. In the past couple of decades, a broader range of approaches have been applied.
Even so, the concepts put in place by earlier scholars still serve as the framework through which
many present- day scholars continue to approach the Heian and Kamakura eras. One might argue
that the influence of Marxist theories in the field of history turned a generation of Japanese
researchers away from larger theoretical questions and induced a focus on narrower questions
and problems. Nevertheless, theoretical discussions about the nature of political, social, and eco-
nomic structures in place during the Heian era continue to engage Japanese scholars, and as such
are important cornerstones for research on the age.
The regency and the royal- court state
Moving the capital from Nara, first to Nagaoka in 784, and then eventually to Kyoto (Heian-
kyō) in 794, was accomplished through powerful rule by Emperor Kanmu (737–806, ruled