From classical to medieval?point—as some critics of Kawane have already pointed out—and yet, many scholars have argued
that the rule by retired emperors marks a transition into a new order rather than being merely an
extension of the royal- court state.^32
The royal- court state theory has helped historians and students better understand the mid-
Heian period by emphasizing the adjustments and changes that occurred within the administrative
structures. But at the same time, it has failed to address issues outside the capital region, such as
the relationship between the center and provincial headquarters or the political structures within
the provinces, or the role played by noblewomen within the court.^33 Still, describing the period
largely dominated by Fujiwara chieftains as a royal- court state does not seem inappropriate when
it comes to the continued centrality of the capital elites in the sociopolitical structures of the
early- to mid- Heian age.
Insei: rule by retired emperors
By the late eleventh century, domination of the imperial court at the hands of the Fujiwara came
to an end when their chieftain Yorimichi (992–1074) ran out of options to put male descendants
on the throne. Although he had managed to exert influence through his sisters, Yorimichi’s own
daughters were unable to produce male heirs. Reluctantly, he was forced to allow Go- Sanjō
(1034–1073; r. 1068–1072), who was not only independent of the Fujiwara chieftain but also an
adult, to ascend the throne in 1068. Go- Sanjō detested the Fujiwara and proceeded to take meas-
ures to limit the influence of his adversaries. For instance, he issued edicts to restrict the creation
of new shōen, even attempting to disallow those created after 1045 retroactively. To further
improve the financial foundation of the imperial family, he converted estates that had been con-
fiscated into “imperial edict fields” (chokushiden), an innovative attempt to establish an extensive
land- base for the imperial family outside the confines of the bureaucratic state. Notwithstanding,
Go- Sanjō’s biggest concern was with imperial succession, which had been firmly under Fujiwara
control for two centuries. In other words, no matter Go- Sanjō’s innovative policies, they could
all be reverted once he died, and since he was in poor health, he addressed the succession issue by
naming Prince Sukehito (1053–1129; r. 1072–1086; in 1086–1129) crown prince and prepared
for his own resignation while he was still in power. Sukehito, known under his imperial name as
Shirakawa, ascended the throne in 1072, proving to be a worthy successor.^34 As a review of his
policies and initiatives will reveal, Shirakawa might even be considered one of the greatest sov-
ereigns of the entire Heian period.
Like his father, Shirakawa began by addressing the fundamental problem of privatization of
land, repeating Go- Sanjō’s prohibition against the formation of new shōen in 1075, which was
also proclaimed by his successors in 1087 and 1099. But Shirakawa went further. Realizing the
need to have control over more estates, he encouraged the creation of new estates (despite his
own prohibition against them) in the name of imperial consorts once they had produced male
heirs to the throne. A second strategy was to assign public land in various provinces directly to
retainers, such as the Ise Taira. Such land became known as “proprietary provinces” (chigyō koku),
creating, in essence, two parallel, privatized land hierarchies between the shōen and the remaining
provincial land.^35 A third strategy, attesting to Shirakawa’s ambitions and ingenuity, was to
extend the imperial family’s influence over the religious sector. For instance, he sponsored the
construction of sub- cloisters at established temples in an effort to gather direct connections and
allies, placing princes who were not contenders for the throne as abbots there. He also built
numerous new temples, where he favored schools that were not associated with the Fujiwara, or
where he could replace the Fujiwara as the main patron. These new temples needed some reli-
gious affiliation, and in most of those cases, Shirakawa favored Tendai and Shingon, appointing