M.S. Adolphson
13 Hashimoto Yoshihiko, “Kizoku seiken no seiji kōzō,” 26–27.
14 See Charlotte von Verschuer, “Life of Commoners in the Provinces: The Owari no gebumi of 988.”
15 See for example Inoue Mitsusada et al., Shōsetsu Nihon shi.
16 Sakamoto, Nihon ōchō kokka taisei ron; Sasaki, Nihon ōchō kokka ron, 6; Kawane Yoshiyasu, “Chūsei hōken
jidai no tochi seidō to kaikyū kōzō,” 3–18.
17 Toda Yoshimi, “Chūsei shakai seiritsu ki no kokka,” 212–291, especially 225–229; Toda, “Chūsei seir-
itsu ki no kokka to nōmin,” 18–32. See also Toda’s “ōchō kokka” in Chūsei handobukkui, 109.
18 Ishimoda Shō, “Hōkenteki sho kankei no seichō”; Sakai, Nihon ōchō kokka ron, 8.
19 See in particular the aforementioned works by Sakamoto and Kawane.
20 Early attempts by Western scholars to evaluate the notion of “feudalism” in Japan include Asakawa
Kan’ichi’s “Feudalism: Japanese”; Rushton Coulborn’s “Origin and Development of Feudalism in
Japan and Western Europe”; Edwin Reischauer’s “Japanese Feudalism”; and Peter Duus’s Feudalism in
Japan. By the 1980s, however, scholars were becoming skeptical of the construct, as exemplified by
Jeffrey Mass’s “The Early Bakufu and Feudalism.” For recent summaries and arguments on the contro-
versy, see Mikael Adolphson, “Social Change and Contained Transformations: Warriors and Merchants
in Japan, 1000–1300”; Thomas Keirstead, “Inventing Medieval Japan: The History and Politics of
National Identity”; Kierstead, “Medieval Japan: Taking the Middle Ages Outside Europe”; and Karl
Friday, “The Futile Paradigm: In Quest of Feudalism in Early Medieval Japan.”
21 See for example Soga Yoshinari’s Ōchō kokka seimu no kenkyū, in which he argues for the continued vital-
ity of the court and its rituals, albeit in a changed form. In English, see Mikael S. Adolphson, “Institu-
tional Diversity and Religious Integration: The Establishment of Temple Networks in the Heian Age,”
- On Masakado’s rebellion, see Karl Friday, The First Samurai. Taira no Tadatsune’s case in the early
eleventh century provides yet another example, as demonstrated by Karl Friday in his “Lordship Inter-
dicted: Taira no Tadatsune and the Limited Horizons of Warrior Ambition.”
22 See Adolphson, “Institutional Diversity and Religious Integration.”
23 A prime example of how Fujiwara members sponsored other institutions can be found in Fujiwara no
Morosuke’s (908–960) patronage of the monk Tendai monk Ryōgen (912–985). See Neil McMullin’s
“The Lotus Sutra and Politics in the Mid- Heian Period,” especially 129–133, and Paul Groner, Ryōgen
and Mt. Hiei.
24 Furuse Natsuko, “Heian jidai no ‘gishiki’ to tennō,” 36–45.
25 G. Cameron Hurst III, “The Structure of the Heian Court: Some Thoughts on the Nature of ‘Familial
Authority’ in Heian Japan.”
26 Sasaki, Nihon ōchō kokka ron, 3.
27 Satō Sōjun, Heian zenki seiji shi yosetsu, 19–23.
28 Satō Shin’ichi, Nihon no chūsei kokka, 11–62. See also Morita Tei, Kenkyū shi ōchō kokka, 4–5.
29 Toda, “Ōchō kokka,” 109; Sakamoto, Nihon ōchō kokka taiesei ron, 7.
30 Toda, “Chūsei shakai seiritsu ki no kokka,” 19, 29–31; Sakamoto, Nihon ōchō kokka; Sakai, Nihon ōchō
kokka ron, 7.
31 Kawane Yoshiyasu, “Chūsei shakai seiritsu ki no nōmin mondai,” 14–26; Kawane, “Chūsei hōken jidai
no tochi seidō to kaikyū kōzō,” 3–18; Sasaki, Nihon ōchō kokka ron, 7.
32 For Kawane critics, see Takada Makoto, “Nihon hōken shakai seiritsu ki no ni, san mondai,” 1–10;
Sasaki, Nihon ōchō kokka ron, 7.
33 Sasaki, Nihon ōchō kokka ron, 8. For an insightful treatment of how the roles of women changed within
the imperial court, see Fukutō Sanae’s “From Female Sovereign to Mother of the Nation: Women and
Government in the Heian Period.”
34 Hurst, Insei, 101–124; Adolphson, Gates of Power, 78–79.
35 Hurst, Insei, 128–129; Gomi Fumihiko, Insei ki shakai no kenkyū 139–141, 164–165; Adolphson, Gates
of Power, 81–82.
36 Adolphson, The Gates of Power, 84–88.
37 Adolphson, The Gates of Power, 104–121.
38 Kuroda Toshio, Nihon chūsei kokka to shūkyō, 17–18, 20–21, 31; Kuroda, “Chūsei kokka to tennō,”
277–280; Adolphson, The Gates of Power, 10–15. It should be noted that Kuroda’s main concern was to
recognize religious institutions as legitimate political entities at a time when Buddhist temples in par-
ticular were criticized for having wielded too much political and military power. See also his Jisha seiry-
oku: mō hitotsu chūsei no shakai.
39 Kuroda, Nihon chūsei kokka to shūkyō, 7–11, 367; Kuroda, “Chūsei kokka to tennō,” 269–270; Adolphson,
The Gates of Power, 12–13.