Heian-kyo ̄: from royal center to metropole10 Furuse Natsuko, Nihon kodai ōken to gishiki, esp. 1–32.
11 For a diagram about how this command economy worked, see Joan R. Piggott, The Emergence of Japanese
Kingship, 200. In contrast with Yamanaka, Sakaehara Towao thinks that the circulating economy (ryūtsū
keizai) linking Heijō and market places, production points, and entrepots across the Kinai and more
distant provincial headquarters (kokufu) was already well developed in Nara times. See Nara jidai ryūtsū
keizaishi no kenkyū, especialy 1–136; and “Kōnō to zaisei,” 149–186; Kyōraku Mahoko’s “Heijō-kyō
kenkyū no genjo to kadai nōto”; and “Heian- kyō ni okeru toshi no tensei.” An indispensable discussion
of early Kinai transit nodes and ports is Matsubara Hironobu, “Kodai ni okeru tsu no seikaku to kinō.”
For a map showing commodities sent to Heijō as tax items, see Wheatley and See, From Court to
Capital, 151.
12 On the move to Heian- kyō, see Yamanaka Akira. Nihon kodai tojō no kenkyū; and “Kodai toshi.” In
English, on reasons for the move, see Ronald Toby, “Why Leave Nara?” On construction of the new
palace at Heian, see Joan Piggott, “Palace and Kingship at Early Heian.”
13 Kitamura Masaki, “Heian- kyō no shihai kikō, zaike shihai wo chūshin ni,” 1–10.
14 Yamanaka Akira, “Kodai toshi,” 25–40. An accessible overview is Nitō Atsushi, Miyako ga tsukuru kodai
kokka.
15 See Hotate Michihisa, “Traffic between Capital and Countryside.” Such problems were cited by the
provincial governor Miyoshi Kiyoyuki (847–918) in his memorial to the throne of 914, on which see
Cornelius Kiley, “Provincial Administration and Land Tenure in Early Heian,” 299–305.
16 Tateno Kazumi, Nihon kodai no kōtsū to shakai, especially 17–68.
17 Nitō Atsushi, “Shoki Heian- kyō no shiteki igi” and “Kodai tojō no shūtosei.” Kyaku were compiled in the
Ruijū sandaikyaku in the early tenth century. Satō Makoto and Yoshida Nobuyuki, Toshi shakaishi, 36–41.
18 Hirao Masayuki, “Kizoku no utsuwa, shōmin no utsuwa,” 281–284; and Araki Toshio, “Miyako to
hina no hito no ōrai,” especially 429–433.
19 Smiths and bronze casters were active in the capital. They originally resided in court- provided com-
pounds and later lived together in their own neighborhoods by the late tenth century. See Kume Maiko,
“Michimichi no saiku” and “Heian- kyō to shimin no sonzai keitai.”
20 Joan Piggott, “What Did a Regent Do?,” 26; Takahashi Masaaki, Kyōto sennen no miyako no rekishi,
45–49. Ueda Masaaki and Inoue Mitsuo (Heian- kyō no fūkei, 80–83) think that only third- rankers would
have lived in shinden, of which there were maybe twenty at any given time. Also see William Coaldrake,
Architecture and Authority in Japan, 81–93; and Oboroya Hisashi, Heian kizoku to teitaku.
21 For instance, recent excavations at the residence of the early minister Fujiwara Yoshimi (813–867)
uncovered twenty fragments of inscribed pottery (bokushodoki) that are the earliest known examples of
the hiragana syllabary. And on commoner dwellings, see Shigeta Shin’ichi, “Zōshiki no to: Heian- kyō
no shomin seikatsu wo bunken shiryō ni miru kokoromi,” 41–50. News of archaeological finds can be
found in the monthly journal Bunkazai hakkutsu shutsudo jōhō as well as on the web in Kōko arakaruto, at
Kyoto- arc.or.jp.
22 Hotate’s ideas about “urban kingship” (toshi ōken)—which he sees as a fundamental structure in Japan’s
history—are strongly influenced by Max Weber. Hotate describes “urban kingship” as the blending of
patriarchal and patrimonial authority in relations between capital and provinces. See “Toshi ōken to
kizoku hanchū.”
23 Takahashi Masaaki, Kyōto sennen, 52; and Ojima Shūhei, “Heian kizoku no hō kitei, michimori ishiki no
shosō: toshi iji kanri wo chūshin toshite,” 6–8. For recent archaeological finds see Bunkazai hakkutsu
shutsudo jōhō, 52–54; and Kōkogaku arakaruto, at Kyoto- arc.or.jp, #57.
24 Yamanaka Akira and Kitamura Masaki. “Kodai kara chūsei e,” 25; Yasuda Masahiko, Heian- kyō no nioi,
15–30; and Kurosaki Tadashi, “Nihon kodai no toshi to benjo.”
25 Kushiki Yoshinori, Nihon kodai no shūto to kōkyōsei, 3–14. Another facet of the court’s urban policy was
the official Seiyakuin hospice for the sick and orphans, concerning which a cluster of wooden docu-
ments was uncovered in 2014. See Bunkazai hakkutsu shutsudo jōhō 2014.9, 43–44.
26 Kushiki Yoshinori, Nihon kodai no shūto to kōkyōsei, 43–91. On the Kebiishi- chō, see Inoue Masami,
“Kyūseiki danjōdai no kyōnai junsatsu taisei”; Maeda Sadahiko, “Heian jidai no hō to chitsujō:
Kebiishichō no yakuwari to igi”; Morita Tei, “Heian chūki kebiishi ni tsuite no oboegaki”; Uwayokote
Masataka, “Heian chūki no keisatsu jōtai”; Inoue Mitsuo, Heian jidai no gunji seido no kenkyū, 104–131;
Ōae Akira, Ritsuryō seika no shihō to keisatsu: kebiishi seido o chūshin to shite; and Niunoya Tetsuichi, Kebii-
shi: chūsei no kegare to kenryoku. In English, see Karl Friday, Hired Swords: The Rise of Private Warrior Power
in Early Japan, 128–136. In French, see Francine Hérail, Fonctions et fonctionnaires: Japon au début du XIe
siècle, 480–497.