Religion in Nara and Heian JapanJames Robson takes a nuanced stance, distinguishing Daoist ideas and practices on the one
hand from organized religious institutions on the other, clarifying that only the former was
present in Nara Japan. Robson includes an interesting mid- eighth-century episode involving the
Tang monk Ganjin (688–763), in which the Japanese court supposedly refused the Chinese
Emperor Xuanzong’s request for permission to send a Daoist master to Japan.^20
Regardless of what one considers to be “Daoist” in a Japanese context, it is clear that certain
ideas later labeled as Daoist—but not its institutions—made their way to Japan before and during
the Nara period. An understudied route to follow might be the in- depth exploration of the influx
of Daoist terminology and ideas as absorbed by Buddhist sources and commentaries, or the close
link between the import of Daoist elements and Korean influence on Japanese culture. These
important areas of study were already noted by Seidel in 1990: “What northern Japan assimilated
(between the fourth and the seventh century) was not freeze- dried Chinese culture ... but rather
Korean culture including its adopted Chinese elements.”^21 In other words, scholars should first
address the presence or absence of “Daoist elements” in a Korean context to better understand
the meaning and use of these concepts in an early Japanese environment. The prime example of
the Japanese reception of Chinese practices might be the understudied onmyōdō tradition.
Recently, studies of the Chinese influence on Nara period rites have given rise to an increasing
interest in the definition and status of onmyōdō throughout the premodern and early modern
periods. A form of divination derived from Yin- Yang theories, onmyōdō is a set of practices and
beliefs that entered Japan through Korea around the seventh and eighth centuries. As Bernard
Faure notes, part of the difficulty in addressing this tradition is the term onmyōdō itself, as it
encompasses a “variety of phenomena that ... probably have a mere ‘family resemblance’.”^22
According to Hayashi Makamoto and Matthias Hayek, the onmyōdō tradition was initially
regarded as a Japanese version of Daoism, but scholars have come to realize that it was in fact a
distinct tradition constructed in Japan. They do, however, admit that “it is difficult to state that
it has nothing to do with Daoism.”^23
In discussing onmyōdō as a tradition that was formed in Japan, Masuo Shin’ichirō analyzed its
connection with Chinese religions and the status of the onmyōryō office within the ritsuryō state’s
institutional framework. He concluded that this onmyōryō initially was a government office in
charge of divination, started to become involved in rituals during the Nara period, and evolved
toward involvement in prayers and “spell- like rituals” by the early Heian period.^24 His discussion
of seventh- century Buddhist monks who held high positions in the Ministry of Monastic Affairs
but who were also involved in the transmission of dunjia divination, geomancy, and fangshu texts
is particularly interesting. This example not only demonstrates the eclectic nature of the Bud-
dhist monastic community and its ritual background, it also confirms the point made above, that
the main question should perhaps not be whether or not “Daoism” was present in premodern
Japan, but how Daoist terminology and practices related to the larger whole of continental ideas
that were received by the Japanese.^25
A closer examination of the links between the onmyōryō office and the Buddhist community
reveals a profound interest among esoteric monks in cultivating calendrical skills, with numerous
monks enjoying high reputations in horoscopy.^26 The exploration of the close connection
between esoteric monks and onmyōdō, and especially the former’s participation in the state’s time-
keeping, would greatly refine our understanding of the Buddhist community’s participation in
court matters, both from a religious and institutional point of view. For example: Buddhist
monks and onmyōji (yin- yang masters) joined in assemblies that involved the chanting of sacred
dhāranī (esoteric incantations) or talismans (hitokata) to ward off pollution or diseases.^27 Despite
these events being mentioned in diaries or depicted on scrolls, little research has been done to
unravel their religious and ritual significance.