Kawai Y., with K.F. Friday
99–263; Minoru Shinoda, The Founding of the Kamakura Shogunate, 1180–1185, 13–144; and Takeuchi
Rizō, “The Rise of Warriors.”
5 Key expressions of this new vision of the Heian polity in English include John W. Hall, Government and
Local Power in Japan, 500–1700: A Study Based on Bizen Province; Cornelius J. Kiley, “Estate and Property
in the Late Heian Period,” and “The Imperial Court as a Legal Authority in the Kamakura Age”; G.
Cameron Hurst, III, Insei: Abdicated Sovereigns in the Politics of Late Heian Japan 1086–1185, and “The
Kōbu Polity: Court- Bakufu Relations in Kamakura Japan”; Peter Arnesen, “The Struggle for Lordship
in Late Heian Japan: The Case of Aki”; and Jeffrey P. Mass, Warrior Government in Early Medieval Japan:
A Study of the Kamakura Bakufu, Shugo and Jitō, and The Development of Kamakura Rule 1180–1250: A
History with Documents.
6 Toda Yoshimi, “Bushidan no seichō”; Hall, Government and Local Power, 129–142; Satō Shin’ichi, Nihon
no rekishi 9: Nanbokuchō no dōran.
7 Toda Yoshimi, “Kokuga gunsei no keisei katei,” and “Kokuga gunsei no keisei josetsu”; Ishii Susumu,
“Chūsei seiritsu- ki gunsei kenkyū no ichi shiten,” “Insei- ki no kokuga gunsei,” “Chūsei seiritsu- ki no
gunsei,” and Chūsei bushidan; Fukuda Toyohiko, “Ōchō gunji kikō to nairan”; Shimomukai Tatsuhiko,
“Ōchō kokka kokuga gunsei no seiritsu,” “Ōchō kokka kokuga gunsei no kōzō to tenkai,” “Kokuga to
bushi,” and “Ōryōshi, tsuibushi no shoruikei”; Inoue Mitsuo, “Kebiishi no seiritsu to sekkan seiji,”
“Ōryōshi no kenkyū,” “Heian jidai no tsuibushi,” “Insei seiken no gunjiteki hensei,” and Heian jidai no
gunji seido no kenkyū; Morita Tei, “Kebiishi ni tsuite,” “Kebiishi no kenkyū,” “Kebiishi seiritsu no
zentei,” “Heian zenki o chūshin to shita kizoku no shiteki buryoku ni tsuite,” “Heian chūki kebiishi ni
tsuite no oboegaki,” and “Heian zenki tōgoku no gunji mondai ni tsuite”; Uwayokote, “Heian chūki
no keisatsu seido”; Horiuchi Kazuaki, “Heian chūki no kebiishi no buryoku ni tsuite”; Satō Shin’ichi,
Nihon no chūsei kokka; Takayama Kaoru, “Shirakawa insei- ki ni okeru kebiishi no ichisokumen: bunin
jōkyō kara mite”; Shirakawa Tetsurō, “Heishi ni yoru kebiishi chō shōaku ni tsuite.” Key studies on the
ritsuryō military system include Naoki Kōjirō, Nihon kodai heiseishi no kenkyū; Sasayama Haruo, Kodai
kokka to guntai; Noda Reishi, Ritsuryō kokka no gunjisei; and Hashimoto Yū, Ritsuryō gundansei no kenkyū.
8 Karl Friday, Hired Swords: The Rise of Private Warrior Power in Early Japan. This argument was initially
laid out in “Teeth and Claws: Provincial Warriors and the Heian Court,” and in Friday’s 1989
dissertation.
9 William Wayne Farris, Heavenly Warriors: The Evolution of Japan’s Military, 500–1300.
10 Takahashi Masaaki, Bushi no seiritsu: bushizō no sōshutsu. It is worth noting that Takahashi saw his views
as harking back to those of Kume Kunitake (see Kume Kunitake chosakushū, vol. 2 of Nihon kodai chūsei shi
no kenkyū), although he maintains that he did not become aware of Kume’s work until he had already
reached similar conclusions independently. Kondō Yoshikazu (Chūsei-teki bugu no seiritsu to bushi), like
Takahashi, began with an exhaustive study of arms, armor, and military tactics, and arrived at very
similar conclusions concerning the origins of the bushi. His principal point of disagreement with Taka-
hashi is over the role and meaning of the bow and arrow among court military officers. Takahashi
maintains that bows were largely symbolic weapons, while Kondō argues that they were valued first and
foremost for practical military purposes.
11 Takahashi, Bushi no seiritsu, 13–20, 130–134.
12 Shimomukai Tatsuhiko, Bushi no seiritsu to insei, 101–102. For studies of the Taira Masakado insurrec-
tion in English, see Karl Friday, The First Samurai: The Life and Legend of the Warrior Rebel, Taira Masa-
kado; Farris, Heavenly Warriors, 131–162; Judith Rabinovitch, Shōmonki: The Story of Masakado’s
Rebellion; or Giuliana Stramigioli, “Preliminary Notes on the Masakadoki and Taira no Masakado
Story,” or “Masakadoki.”
13 The term Genji derives from the Sino- Japanese reading of the surname Minamoto. The Seiwa Genji,
then, were the Minamoto line that claimed descent from emperor Seiwa (r. 858–876). Similarly, Heishi
comes from the Sino- Japanese reading of the surname Taira. The Kanmu Heishi were branches of Taira
claiming descent from Emperor Kanmu (r. 781–806). The Hidesato- ryū Fujiwara (“the line to which
Hidesato belonged”) were a group of warrior houses descended from Fujiwara Uona (721–783).
14 Motoki Yasuo, Bushi no seiritsu; Shimomukai, Bushi no seiritsu to insei; Kawajiri Akio, “Bumon no
keisei.”
15 Ishimoda, Chūseiteki sekai no keisei, and Kodai makki no seiji katei oyobi seiji keitai; Nagahara Keiji, Nihon
hōkensei seiritsu katei no kenkyū. For more on shōen, see Chapters 9 and 10 of this volume.
16 See, for example, Toda Yoshimi, “Chūsei hōkensei no seiritsu katei.” Western historians of Japan have
grown distrustful of the construct of “feudalism” itself and its utility for conceptualizing premodern
Japan—owing, in almost equal measure, to difficulties inherent in the construct itself, and from a