Medieval warriors and warfaresensitivity to the fundamental differences between historical evolution in medieval Japan and Europe.
See the discussion of this point in Chapter 7 of this volume.
17 Irumada Nobuo, “Shugo࣭jitō to ryōshusei.”
18 Mass, Warrior Government in Early Medieval Japan. Mass later refined his argument in Yoritomo and the
Founding of the First Bakufu: The Origins of Dual Government in Japan.
19 The basis for this belief is three entries in Azuma kagami, from 1185 11/12, 11/28, and 12/6.
20 Kawai Yasushi, Kamakura bakufu seiritsushi no kenkyū and Genpei kassen no kyozō o hagu.
21 See, for example, Matsunaga Kazuhiro, Muromachi- ki kōbu kankei to Nanbokuchō nairan; Andrew Goble,
Kenmu: Go- Daigo’s Revolution; Thomas Conlan, State of War: The Violent Order of Fourteenth Century
Japan; and Karl Friday, Samurai, Warfare and the State in Early Medieval Japan.
22 See, for example, Hasegawa Tadashi, “The Early Stages of the Heike Monogatari”; Kenneth Butler,
“The Textual Evolution of the Heike Monogatari,” “The Heike Monogatari and the Japanese Warrior
Ethic,” and “The Heike Monogatari and Theories of Oral Epic Literature.” Butler argues that the biwa-
hōshi produced many of their embellishments and much of the detail of the now- familiar tales by manip-
ulating stereotyped themes and formulae common to oral tale composition all over the world.
23 Kawai Yasushi, “Chūsei bushi no bugei to sensō: Genpei kassen o chūshin ni”; “Jishō࣭Juei no sensō to
Heike monogatari”; Takahashi, Bushi no seiritsu, 1–66. Historians have, in fact, been commenting on the
latter problem for generations. In his famous 1891 essay “Taiheiki wa shigaku ni eki nashi” (originally
published in 1891), Kume Kunitake, for example, offered several illustrations of this sort of scientific
error in Taiheiki, a chronicle of the Nanbokuchō wars.
24 Kuroda Hideo, Nazo toki Nihon shi: kaiga shiryō o yomu, provides an easily accessible introduction to
emaki.
25 Gomi Fumihiko, Azuma kagami no hōhō: jijitsu to shinwa ni miru chūsei, offers an extensive analysis of
Azuma kagami’s value as a historical source.
26 Kaizu Ichirō, “Kassen teoi chūmon no seiritsu”; Urushihara Tōru, “Gunchūjō ni kansuru jakkan no
kōsatsu”; Kudō Keiichi, “Chakutōjō࣭gunchūjō no seiritsu jōken oboegaki”; Thomas Conlan, State
of War.
27 See, for example, Mikoso Hane, Premodern Japan: A Historical Survey, 73–74; Stephen R. Turnbull, The
Book of the Samurai: The Warrior Class of Japan, 19, 22–36; Turnbull, The Lone Samurai and the Martial Arts,
14–28; John Newman, Bushido: The Way of the Warrior, 13–14, 16–17.
28 Ishii Shirō, Nihonjin no kokka seikatsu, 14–24; Eiko Ikegami, The Taming of the Samurai: Honorific Individu-
alism and the Making of Modern Japan, 97–103. Other recent or important examples of scholarship depict-
ing early medieval warfare as ritualized include: Nishimata Fusao, “Kassen no rūru to manā”; Okada
Seiichi, “Kassen to girei”; Seki Yukihiko, “ ‘Bu’ no kōgen: katchū to yumiya”; Takahashi, Bushi no
seiritsu; and H. Paul Varley, Warriors of Japan as Portrayed in the War Tales. Among the most intriguing
analyses here is Farris’s (Heavenly Warriors, 8–9) application of extrapolations from socio- biology and
anthropology to early medieval Japanese battlefields, which likened early bushi warfare to the intraspe-
cific combat of stags and rams contesting with rivals over mates, or wolves sparring to secure dominance
within their packs.
29 Toda, “Kokuga gunsei no keisei katei”; Morita Tei, “Kodai sento ni tsuite”; and Inoue, Heian jidai no
gunji seido. Sasaki Minoru, “Tetsu to Nihon- tō,” and “Nihon- tō to ōyoroi no seiritsu katei: kinzoku
kōkogakuteki tachiba kara no kōsatsu”; Seki, “ ‘Bu’ no kōgen”; Fukuda Toyohiko, “Rekishi kara mita
Nishinotani iseki no igi”; Sakamoto Akira, “Tōgoku bushi no sōbi kōjō o horu”; Fujimoto Masayuki,
Yoroi o matou hitobito, “Bugu to kassen no henbō,” “Bugu to rekishi I: tate,” “Bugu to rekishi II: yumiya,”
and “Bugu to rekishi III: katchū”; Mori Toshio, “Yumi no iryoku” and “Yumi no hattatsu”; Toyoda
Aritsune and Nomura Shin’ichi, Yoshitsune kiba gundan; Kondō Yoshikazu, Yumiya to tōken: chūsei kassen
no jitsuzō and Chūsei-teki bugu no seiritsu to bushi.
30 Key publications here include Kawai, Genpei kassen no kyozō o hagu, Genpei no nairan to kōbu seiken, and
Kamakura bakufu seiritsushi no kenkyū; Takahashi Masaaki, Bushi no seiritsu; Noguchi Minoru, “Kokka
to buryoku: chūsei ni okeru bushi࣭buryoku,” Buke no tōryō no jōken: chūsei bushi o minaosu, “Bandō bushi
to uma,” and “Ikusa to girei”; Gomi Fumihiko, Bushi to bunshi no chūseishi, and Sesshō to shinkō: bushi o
saguru; Suzuki Keizō, Kassen emaki Thomas Conlan, State of War; Karl Friday, Samurai, Warfare and the
State.
31 See, for example, Hashiguchi Sadashi, “Chūsei hōkeikan o meguru shomondai” and “Hōkeikan wa ika
ni seiritsu suru no ka”; Kawai, “Jishō࣭Juei no ‘sensō’ to Kamakura bakufu” and Genpei kassen no kyozō
o hagu; and Nakazawa Katsuaki, “Chūsei jōkaku-shi shiron,” “Kūkan to shite no ‘jōkaku’ to sono
tenkai,” and Chūsei no buryoku to jōkaku.