Religion in medieval JapanThe advent of Kamakura “new” lineages
Historians and scholars of religion maintain a series of viewpoints regarding the contexts for the
appearance of the figures like Hōnen who would come to be seen as the “founders” of the line-
ages of “Kamakura New Buddhism” (Kamakura shin bukkyō). One view regarding these founders
has been that of Matsuo Kenji, who argues that “new” Buddhism can be identified with those
monks who wore black monastic robes, in his view to distinguish themselves from those in the
established temples.^15 Taira Masayuki, in particular, has built upon Kuroda’s work to claim that
these lineages, with the singular exception of the Rinzai Zen lineages, did not acquire promi-
nence comparable to that of the established lineages until the late fifteenth to sixteenth centu-
ries—which is now the generally accepted view in academic circles.^16 At the same time, Ōtsuka
Norihiro has recently argued that Taira’s view statically assumes the centrality of governmental
power over local manors (shōen) within the Kenmitsu system when in fact that system featured a
series of semi- marginal figures, related urban centers, and new forms of Buddhism.^17
The so- called founders of the “new” schools were all trained initially at the Tendai center of
Mount Hiei and all ventured forth from the mountain. It is questionable, however, whether all
of them saw themselves as constructing new traditions, let alone ones with a sectarian character
or marked by exclusive affiliation. Most continued to include some study of a broad range of
Buddhist schools and practices; the study of multiple schools and practices was typically referred
to as shoshū kengaku (“simultaneous study of schools”) in the traditional Kenmitsu complexes, and
several of these so- called founders seem to have retained belief that such study was of some
benefit.
A recent discovery by Abe Yasurō, Sueki Fumihiko, and their research group of a cache of previ-
ously unknown works of Yōsai (alt. Eisai; 1141–1215), known as introducer of the Rinzai Zen (Ch.
Linji Chan) lineages, at Shinpukuji treasury in Nagoya has helped scholars to call into question the
notion of his complete independence from the traditional schools. In particular, it is evident now
that he retained important elements of Tendai esoteric Buddhism (Taimitsu) and was also a devotee
of the bodhisattva Jizō.^18 Original Taimitsu works of Yōsai’s, many of which he wrote prior to the
construction of Kenninji, have been discovered, suggesting that he brought together teachings of
esoteric Tendai, Zen (meditation), and Precepts (= monastic discipline) lineages to create a broader
approach to Buddhism and even presented the Precepts more than Zen as the ideal impetus for the
revival of Japanese Buddhism in his well- known work, Kōzen gokoku ron.^19
Indeed, scholars have recently stressed that Yōsai himself came to be chosen for the official
post of great fundraiser (daikanjin shiki) at Tōdaiji, which we might describe as perhaps testimony
to the association of Zen-affiliated monks with precept purity but also the fact that he skillfully
won patronage from the established monasteries. After Yōsai, Kenninji monks would often be
chosen for the position over the course of the thirteenth century, a further reminder of Zen prac-
titioners’ connections with semi- independent “holy men” (hijiri) groups and related associations
with purity of practice as well as the fact that they were often successful in their efforts to acquire
patronage.^20 Tōfukuji (Rinzai) founder Enni Ben’en (1202–1280) was also initiated into the
Sanbō’in sub- lineage of Shingon, which helped give rise to unique pairings of Zen and esoteric
Buddhist lineage sometimes referred to as Zenmitsu; he even had followers from Mount Kōya.^21
Less than a century after Dōgen’s introduction of Sōtō Zen lineages from China, the monk
Keizan was heavily indebted to esoteric Buddhist beliefs and practices. As Bernard Faure has
demonstrated, Keizan was influenced by groups indebted to the twelfth- century monk Nōnin,
presumed founder of a small group of Zen practitioners sometimes called the Daruma- shū,
members of which were active in the early history of the Sōtō lineages, as well as that of the
monk Kakushin (1207–1298), which incorporated Shingon influence.^22 The same can be said for