138 Part II Psychodynamic Theories
people in different areas of church life and in different Christian denominations. In
this way, the work may also have a direct impact on how clergy, lay clergy, and their
congregations relate to one another and to their wider non-churchgoing communities.A Critical Look at the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)
Although the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator has been used for decades in career and
couples counseling, among other areas, there have been some critical analyses of
it both theoretically and empirically. The theoretical criticism mostly revolves
around the debate of type versus trait. Most modern personality psychologists are
convinced (and there is much empirical evidence to support them, see Chapters 13
and 14 of this book) that personality traits are not either-or typologies or categories
(e.g., Introversion or Extraversion), but rather they exist on a continuum with most
people being in the middle rather than on one extreme end (Grant, 2013; Pittenger,
2005). Personality is not so black and white as types would suggest. Note that this
is currently a debate in clinical psychology as well, with a growing number of
psychologists arguing against categorical diagnosis (e.g., someone is either schizo-
phrenic or they are not). They argue that disorders are also on a continuum rather
than being typologies or categories. Indeed, part of this debate is simply a disagree-
ment between two groups who see personality differently (Lloyd, 2012). On the
one side are clinicians and people in business who are more prone to seeing per-
sonality as categories and on the other are experimentalists who are more prone to
seeing personality traits on a continuum from a little to a lot.
The empirical criticism stems primarily from whether typologies are consistent
over time, that is, whether they have test-retest reliability. Here the argument is that
one might receive an INTJ typology one month but an ESFP a few months later
(Grant, 2013). If that is true, then how valid can it be since personality is consistent
over long periods of time? To be fair, the evidence for reliability or consistency of
types is mixed, with some studies supporting it (Capraro & Capraro, 2002) and oth-
ers suggesting the test-retest reliability is questionable (Boyle, 1995; Grant, 2013).
But even the Myers-Briggs Foundation reports that on retesting most people receive
three of four same-type categories 75–90% of the time (Reliability and Validity, n.d.).
Critics would see this as not very reliable since up to 25% of the people are receiv-
ing a different score. The Foundation argues that these changes occur most often on
just one dimension (not all four) and when someone is not strongly placed in one or
the other typology to begin with. Of course, critics would argue this is the point to
view traits on a continuum—most people are in the middle rather than on the ends.
In the end, the MBTI does a good job of measuring Jung’s types and predict-
ing career interests (Kennedy & Kennedy, 2004), but there are questions about the
validity of placing people in categories and the extent to which one’s category or
type scores change over short periods of time.Critique of Jung
Carl Jung’s writings continue to fascinate students of humanity. Despite its subjec-
tive and philosophical quality, Jungian psychology has attracted a wide audience of
both professional and lay people. His study of religion and mythology may resonate
with some readers but repel others. Jung, however, regarded himself as a scientist