252 Part II Psychodynamic Theories
Concept of Humanity
More than any other personality theorist, Erich Fromm emphasized the dif-
ferences between humans and the other animals. The essential nature of
humans rests on their unique experience of “being in nature and subject to
all its laws, and simultaneously transcending nature” (Fromm, 1992, p. 24).
He believed that only humans are aware of themselves and their existence.
More specifically, Fromm’s view of humanity is summed up in his defini-
tion of the species: “The human species can be defined as the primate who
emerged at that point of evolution where instinctive determinism had reached
a minimum and the development of the brain a maximum” (Fromm, 1976, p.
137). Human beings, then, are the freaks of nature, the only species ever to
have evolved this combination of minimal instinctive powers and maximal
brain development. “Lacking the capacity to act by the command of instincts
while possessing the capacity for self-awareness, reason, and imagination...
the human species needed a frame of orientation and an object of devotion
in order to survive” (p. 137).
Human survival, however, has been paid for by the price of basic anx-
iety, loneliness, and powerlessness. In every age and culture, people have
been faced with the same fundamental problem: how to escape from feel-
ings of isolation and find unity with nature and with other people.
In general, Fromm was both pessimistic and optimistic. On one hand,
he believed that most people do not accomplish a reunion with nature or
other people and that few people achieve positive freedom. He also had a
rather negative attitude toward modern capitalism, which he insisted was
responsible for most people’s feeling isolated and alone while clinging des-
perately to the illusion of independence and freedom. On the other hand,
Fromm was hopeful enough to believe that some people will achieve reunion
and will therefore realize their human potential. He also believed that humans
can achieve a sense of identity, positive freedom, and growing individuality
within the confines of a capitalistic society. In Man for Himself (1947), he
wrote: “I have become increasingly impressed by... the strength of theFourth, as a guide to action, the chief value of Fromm’s writings is to stim-
ulate readers to think productively. Unfortunately, however, neither the researcher
nor the therapist receives much practical information from Fromm’s essays.
Fifth, Fromm’s views are internally consistent in the sense that a single
theme runs throughout his writings. However, the theory lacks a structured tax-
onomy, a set of operationally defined terms, and a clear limitation of scope. There-
fore, it rates low on internal consistency.
Finally, because Fromm was reluctant to abandon earlier concepts or to relate
them precisely to his later ideas, his theory lacks simplicity and unity. For these
reasons, we rate Fromm’s theory low on the criterion of parsimony.