Chapter 9 Maslow: Holistic-Dynamic Theory 269Sex, for example, is a basic physiological need, but the manner in which it is
expressed depends on learning. For most people, then, sex is an instinctoid need.
One criterion for separating instinctoid needs from noninstinctoid needs is the
level of pathology upon frustration. The thwarting of instinctoid needs produces pathol-
ogy, whereas the frustration of noninstinctoid needs does not. For example, when
people are denied sufficient love, they become sick and are blocked from achieving
psychological health. Likewise, when people are frustrated in satisfying their physio-
logical, safety, esteem, and self-actualization needs, they become sick. Therefore, these
needs are instinctoid. On the other hand, the need to comb one’s hair or to speak one’s
native tongue is learned, and the frustration of these needs does not ordinarily produce
illness. If one would become psychologically ill as the result of not being able to comb
one’s hair or to speak one’s native language, then the frustrated need is actually a basic
instinctoid need, perhaps love and belongingness or possibly esteem.
A second criterion for distinguishing between instinctoid and noninstinctoid
needs is that instinctoid needs are persistent and their satisfaction leads to psycho-
logical health. Noninstinctoid needs, in contrast, are usually temporary and their
satisfaction is not a prerequisite for health.
A third distinction is that instinctoid needs are species-specific. Therefore,
animal instincts cannot be used as a model for studying human motivation. Only
humans can be motivated by esteem and self-actualization.
Fourth, though difficult to change, instinctoid needs can be molded, inhibited,
or altered by environmental influences. Because many instinctoid needs (e.g., love)
are weaker than cultural forces (e.g., aggression in the form of crime or war),
Maslow (1970) insisted that society should “protect the weak, subtle, and tender
instinctoid needs if they are not to be overwhelmed by the tougher more powerful
culture” (p. 82). Stated another way, even though instinctoid needs are basic and
unlearned, they can be changed and even destroyed by the more powerful forces
of civilization. Hence, a healthy society should seek ways in which its members
can receive satisfaction not only for physiological and safety needs but for love,
esteem, and self-actualization needs as well.
Comparison of Higher and Lower Needs
Important similarities and differences exist between higher level needs (love, esteem,
and self-actualization) and lower level needs (physiological and safety). Higher needs
are similar to lower ones in that they are instinctoid. Maslow (1970) insisted that
love, esteem, and self-actualization are just as biological as thirst, sex, and hunger.
Differences between higher needs and lower ones are those of degree and
not of kind. First, higher level needs are later on the phylogenetic or evolutionary
scale. For instance, only humans (a relatively recent species) have the need for
self-actualization. Also, higher needs appear later during the course of individual
development; lower level needs must be cared for in infants and children before
higher level needs become operative.
Second, higher level needs produce more happiness and more peak experi-
ences, although satisfaction of lower level needs may produce a degree of pleasure.
Hedonistic pleasure, however, is usually temporary and not comparable to the
quality of happiness produced by the satisfaction of higher needs. Also, the