312 Part III Humanistic/Existential Theories
the scientist from self-deception and from intentionally or unintentionally manipu-
lating the observations. But this precision should not be confused with science. It
is only the method of science that is precise and objective.
The scientist then communicates findings from that method to others, but the
communication itself is subjective. The people receiving the communication bring
their own degrees of open-mindedness or defensiveness into this process. They have
varying levels of readiness to receive the findings, depending on the prevailing cli-
mate of scientific thought and the personal subjective experiences of each individual.The Chicago Studies
Consistent with his philosophy of science, Rogers did not permit methodology to
dictate the nature of his research. In his investigations of the outcomes of client-
centered psychotherapy, first at the Counseling Center of the University of Chicago
(Rogers & Dymond, 1954) and then with schizophrenic patients at the University
of Wisconsin (Rogers, Gendlin, Kiesler, & Truax, 1967), he and his colleagues
allowed the problem to take precedence over methodology and measurement. They
did not formulate hypotheses simply because the tools for testing them were read-
ily available. Instead, they began by sensing vague impressions from clinical expe-
rience and gradually forming these into testable hypotheses. It was only then that
Rogers and his colleagues dealt with the task of finding or inventing instruments
by which these hypotheses could be tested.
The purpose of the Chicago Studies was to investigate both the process and
the outcomes of client-centered therapy. The therapists were of a “journeyman”
level. They included Rogers and other faculty members, but graduate students also
served as therapists. Though they ranged widely in experience and ability, all were
basically client centered in approach (Rogers, 1961; Rogers & Dymond, 1954).Hypotheses
Research at the University of Chicago Counseling Center was built around the basic
client-centered hypothesis, which states that all persons have within themselves the
capacity, either active or latent, for self-understanding as well as the capacity and
tendency to move in the direction of self-actualization and maturity. This tendency
will become realized provided the therapist creates the proper psychological atmo-
sphere. More specifically, Rogers (1954) hypothesized that during therapy, clients
would assimilate into their self-concepts those feelings and experiences previously
denied to awareness. He also predicted that during and after therapy the discrepancy
between real self and ideal self would diminish and that the observed behavior of
clients would become more socialized, more self-accepting, and more accepting of
others. These hypotheses, in turn, became the foundation for several more specific
hypotheses, which were operationally stated and then tested.Method
Because the hypotheses of the study dictated that subtle subjective personality
changes be measured in an objective fashion, the selection of measuring instru-
ments was a difficult one. To assess change from an external viewpoint, the