320 Part III Humanistic/Existential Theories
worked-out operational definitions. Future theory builders can learn a valuable lesson
from Rogers’ pioneering work in constructing a theory of personality.
Finally, is Rogerian theory parsimonious and free from cumbersome con-
cepts and difficult language? The theory itself is unusually clear and economical,
but some of the language is awkward and vague. Concepts such as “organismic
experiencing, ” “becoming, ” “positive self-regard, ” “need for self-regard,” “uncon-
ditional self-regard,” and “fully functioning” are too broad and imprecise to have
clear scientific meaning. This criticism is a small one, however, in comparison
with the overall tightness and parsimony of person-centered theory.Concept of Humanity
Rogers’ concept of humanity was clearly stated in his famous debates with
B. F. Skinner during the mid-1950s and early 1960s. Perhaps the most
famous debates in the history of American psychology, these discussions
consisted of three face-to-face confrontations between Rogers and Skinner
regarding the issue of freedom and control (Rogers & Skinner, 1956). Skinner
(see Chapter 16) argued that people are always controlled, whether they
realize it or not. Because we are controlled mostly by haphazard contingen-
cies that have no grand design or plan, we often have the illusion that we
are free (Skinner, 1971).
Rogers, however, contended that people have some degree of free
choice and some capacity to be self-directed. Admitting that some portion
of human behavior is controlled, predictable, and lawful, Rogers argued that
the important values and choices are within the scope of personal control.
Throughout his long career, Rogers remained cognizant of the human
capacity for great evil, yet his concept of humanity is realistically optimistic.
He believed that people are essentially forward moving and that, under
proper conditions, they will grow toward self-actualization. People are basi-
cally trustworthy, socialized, and constructive. They ordinarily know what is
best for themselves and will strive for completion provided they are prized
and understood by another healthy individual. However, Rogers (1959) was
also aware that people can be quite brutal, nasty, and neurotic:
I do not have a Pollyanna view of human nature. I am quite aware that out
of defensiveness and inner fear individuals can and do behave in ways
which are horribly destructive, immature, regressive, anti-social, hurtful. Yet,
one of the most refreshing and invigorating parts of my experience is to
work with such individuals and to discover the strongly positive directional
tendencies which exist in them, as in all of us, at the deepest levels. (p. 21)
This tendency toward growth and self-actualization has a biological basis.
Just as plants and animals have an innate tendency toward growth and
fulfillment, so too do human beings. All organisms actualize themselves, but
only humans can become self-actualizing. Humans are different from plants