462 Part VI Learning-Cognitive Theories
target. Almost 2 years before the United States entered the war, Skinner purchased
a flock of pigeons for the purpose of training them to guide missiles. To work
full-time on Project Pigeon, Skinner obtained a grant from the University of
Minnesota and financial aid from General Mills, the food conglomeration housed
in Minneapolis. Unfortunately, he still lacked government support.
In an effort to secure the needed funds, he prepared a film of trained pigeons
pecking at the controls of a missile and guiding it toward a moving target. After
viewing the film, government officials rekindled their interest and awarded General
Mills a substantial grant to develop the project. Nevertheless, frustrations lay
ahead. In 1944, Skinner dramatically demonstrated to government officials the
feasibility of the project by producing a live pigeon that unerringly tracked a mov-
ing target. Despite this spectacular demonstration, some observers laughed and
most remained skeptical. Finally, after 4 years of work, more than 2 of which were
full time, Skinner was notified that financial help could no longer be continued,
and the project came to a halt.
Shortly after Skinner abandoned Project Pigeon and immediately before the
birth of his second daughter, Debbie, he became involved in another venture—the
baby-tender. The baby-tender was essentially an enclosed crib with a large window
and a continual supply of fresh warm air. It provided a physically and psycho-
logically safe and healthy environment for Debbie, one that also freed the parents
from unnecessary tedious labor. The Skinners frequently removed Debbie from her
crib for play, but for most of the day, she was alone in her baby-tender. After
Ladies’ Home Journal published an article on the baby-tender, Skinner was both
condemned and praised for his invention. Interest from other parents persuaded
him to market the device. However, difficulties in securing a patent and his asso-
ciation with an incompetent, unscrupulous business partner led to his abandonment
of the commercial venture. When Debbie outgrew the baby-tender at age 2^1 / 2 years,
Skinner unceremoniously fashioned it into a pigeon cage.
At this point in his life, Skinner was 40 years old, still dependent on his
father for financial help, struggling unsuccessfully to write a book on verbal behav-
ior, and not completely detached from his Dark Year nearly 20 years earlier. Alan
Elms (1981, 1994) believed that the frustrations Skinner experienced over Project
Pigeon and the baby-tender led to a second identity crisis, this one at midlife.
Even as Skinner was becoming a successful and well-known behaviorist, he
was slow to establish financial independence and in childlike fashion allowed his
parents to pay for automobiles, vacations, his children’s education in private
schools, and a house for his family (Bjork, 1993; Wiener, 1996).
One significant experience occurred while Skinner was still at the University
of Minnesota. His father offered to pay him the amount of his summer school
salary if he would forego teaching during the summer months and bring his wife
and daughter to Scranton. In his autobiography, Skinner (1979, p. 245) questioned
his father’s motives, saying that the father merely “wanted to see more of his
adored granddaughter.” Nevertheless, Skinner accepted his father’s offer, went to
Scranton, set up a table in the basement (as far as possible from the attic that was
home base during his Dark Year), and began writing. Once again, Scranton proved
to be a sterile environment, and the book he was writing remained unfinished until
many years later (Skinner, 1957).