478 Part VI Learning-Cognitive Theories
event transpired “within the skin” of the worker. This private event, along with
her verbal report to the friend, can be scientifically analyzed. At the time that the
worker felt like quitting, she might have observed the following covert behavior:
“I am observing within myself increasing degrees of frustration, which are raising
the probability that I will inform my boss that I am quitting.” This statement is
more accurate than saying “I almost quit my job,” and it refers to behavior that,
although private, is within the boundaries of scientific analysis.Drives
From the viewpoint of radical behaviorism, drives are not causes of behavior, but
merely explanatory fictions. To Skinner (1953), drives simply refer to the effects
of deprivation and satiation and to the corresponding probability that the organism
will respond. To deprive a person of food increases the likelihood of eating; to
satiate a person decreases that likelihood. However, deprivation and satiation are
not the only correlates of eating. Other factors that increase or decrease the prob-
ability of eating are internally observed hunger pangs, availability of food, and
previous experiences with food reinforcers.
If psychologists knew enough about the three essentials of behavior (anteced-
ent, behavior, and consequences), then they would know why a person behaves,
that is, what drives are related to specific behaviors. Only then would drives have
a legitimate role in the scientific study of human behavior. For the present, how-
ever, explanations based on fictionalized constructs such as drives or needs are
merely untestable hypotheses.Emotions
Skinner (1974) recognized the subjective existence of emotions, of course, but he
insisted that behavior must not be attributed to them. He accounted for emotions
by the contingencies of survival and the contingencies of reinforcement. Through-
out the millennia, individuals who were most strongly disposed toward fear or
anger were those who escaped from or triumphed over danger and thus were able
to pass on those characteristics to their offspring. On an individual level, behav-
iors followed by delight, joy, pleasure, and other pleasant emotions tend to be
reinforced, thereby increasing the probability that these behaviors would recur in
the life of that individual.Purpose and Intention
Skinner (1974) also recognized the concepts of purpose and intention, but again,
he cautioned against attributing behavior to them. Purpose and intention exist
within the skin, but they are not subject to direct outside scrutiny. A felt, ongoing
purpose may itself be reinforcing. For example, if you believe that your purpose
for jogging is to feel better and live longer, then this thought per se acts as a
reinforcing stimulus, especially while undergoing the drudgery of jogging or when
trying to explain your motivation to a nonrunner.
A person may “intend” to see a movie Friday evening because viewing sim-
ilar films has been reinforcing. At the time the person intends to go to the movie,