490 Part VI Learning-Cognitive Theories
organized set of contingencies” (Skinner, 1974, p. 149). How does Skinner’s the-
ory meet the six criteria of a useful theory?
First, because the theory has spawned a great quantity of research, we rate
the theory very high on its ability to generate research. Second, most of Skinner’s
ideas can be either falsified or verified, so we rate the theory high on falsifiability.
Third, on its ability to organize all that is known about human personality,
we give the theory only a moderate rating. Skinner’s approach was to describe
behavior and the environmental contingencies under which it takes place. His pur-
pose was to bring together these descriptive facts and to generalize from them.
Many personality traits, such as those of the Five-Factor Model, can be accounted
for by the principles of operant conditioning. However, other concepts such as
insight, creativity, motivation, inspiration, and self-efficacy do not fit easily into
an operant conditioning framework.
Fourth, as a guide to action, we rate Skinner’s theory very high. The abundance
of descriptive research turned out by Skinner and his followers has made operant
conditioning an extremely practical procedure. For example, Skinnerian techniques
have been used to help phobic patients overcome their fears, to enhance compliance
to medical recommendations, to help people overcome tobacco and drug addictions,
to improve eating habits, and to increase assertiveness. In fact, Skinnerian theory can
be applied to almost all areas of training, teaching, and psychotherapy.
The fifth criterion of a useful theory is internal consistency, and judged by
this standard, we rate Skinnerian theory very high. Skinner defined his terms pre-
cisely and operationally, a process greatly aided by the avoidance of fictionalized
mentalistic concepts.
Is the theory parsimonious? On this final criterion, Skinner’s theory is dif-
ficult to rate. On one hand, the theory is free from cumbersome hypothetical con-
structs, but on the other, it demands a novel expression of everyday phrases. For
example, instead of saying, “I got so mad at my husband, I threw a dish at him,
but missed,” one would need to say, “The contingencies of reinforcement within
my environment were arranged in such a manner that I observed my organism
throwing a dish against the kitchen wall.”Concept of Humanity
Without doubt, B. F. Skinner held a deterministic view of human nature, and
concepts like free will and individual choice had no place in his behavioral
analysis. People are not free but are controlled by environmental forces.
They may seem to be motivated by inner causes, but in reality those causes
can be traced to sources outside the individual. Self-control depends
ultimately on environmental variables and not on some inner strength. When
people control their own lives, they do so by manipulating their environment,
which in turn shapes their behavior. This environmental approach negates
hypothetical constructs such as willpower or responsibility. Human behavior
is extremely complex, but people behave under many of the same laws as
do machines and animals.