Chapter 16 Skinner: Behavioral Analysis 491The notion that human behavior is completely determined is an
extremely problematic one for many people who believe that they observe
daily many examples of free choice in both themselves and others. What
accounts for this illusion of freedom? Skinner (1971) held that freedom
and dignity are reinforcing concepts because people find satisfaction in
the belief that they are free to choose and also in their faith in the basic
dignity of human beings. Because these fictional concepts are reinforcing
in many modern societies, people tend to behave in ways that increase
the probability that these constructs will be perpetuated. Once freedom
and dignity lose their reinforcement value, people will stop behaving as
if they existed.
In the days preceding Louis Pasteur, many people believed that mag-
gots spontaneously generated on the bodies of dead animals. Skinner
(1974) used this observation to paint an analogy with human behavior, point-
ing out that the spontaneous generation of behavior is no more of a reality
than the spontaneous generation of maggots. Haphazard or random behavior
may appear to be freely chosen, but it is actually the product of haphazard
or random environmental and genetic conditions. People are not autonomous,
but the illusion of autonomy persists due to incomplete understanding of an
individual’s history. When people fail to understand behavior, they assign it
to some internal concept such as free will, beliefs, intentions, values, or
motives. Skinner believed that people are capable of reflecting on their own
nature and that this reflective behavior can be observed and studied just
like any other.
Is Skinner’s concept of humanity optimistic or pessimistic? At first
thought, it may appear that a deterministic stance is necessarily pessimistic.
However, Skinner’s view of human nature is highly optimistic. Because
human behavior is shaped by the principles of reinforcement, the species is
quite adaptable. Of all behaviors, the most satisfying ones tend to increase
in frequency of occurrence. People, therefore, learn to live quite harmoni-
ously with their environment. The evolution of the species is in the direction
of greater control over environmental variables, which results in an increas-
ing repertoire of behaviors beyond those essential for mere survival. How-
ever, Skinner (1987a) was also concerned that modern cultural practices
have not yet evolved to the point at which nuclear war, overpopulation, and
depletion of natural resources can be stopped. In this sense, he was more
of a realist than an optimist.
Nevertheless, Skinner provided a blueprint for a utopian society—
Walden Two (Skinner, 1948, 1976b). If his recommendations were followed,
then people could be taught how to arrange the variables in their environ-
ments so that the probability of correct or satisfying solutions would be
increased.
Is humanity basically good or evil? Skinner hoped for an idealistic soci-
ety in which people behave in ways that are loving, sensible, democratic,
independent, and good, but people are not by nature this way. But neither
are they essentially evil. Within limits set by heredity, people are flexible in
their adaptation to the environment, but no evaluation of good or evil should